Practical Questions on 
Locomotive Operating 




KNIGHT 





ftass TJ60Y 

Book ! 

CopghtN 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Practical Questions on 
Locomotive Operating 



BY 



W. G. KNIGHT 



\<1 



COPYRIGHTED 1913 

BY 

W. G. KNIGHT 

SPRINGFIELD, MASS. 



* 



A 

r 



E L. Grimes Company, Printers, 122 Pearl St., Boston 



©CI.A357620 



CONTENTS. 



Page 

Chapter I. Boston & Maine Examinations 9 
II. Combustion and Firing . . 93 
" III. Locomotive Draft Appliances . 103 
" IV. Locomotive Boilers and Appur- 
tenances . . - . .112 
V. Superheaters . . . 137 
VI. Locomotive Running and Man- 
agement .... 148 
" VII. Air Brake Examination Ques- 
tions ..... 182 
" VIII. Computing Tonnage Rating and 

Other Resistances . . 232 

" IX. Questions on Locomotive Design 237 



PREFACE. 



Composing this little volume is the response to 
the requests of my friends and fellow-workers. 

The work takes up nearly all the essential ques- 
tions asked in the examinations for engineers in the 
Eastern District. 

The first series of questions are those asked in the 
examination for engineers on the Boston & Maine 
System. The line up of the work is such that an 
answer to nearly any question in these examina- 
tions may be found, in addition to several useful 
questions and answers involving Locomotive Oper- 
ation. 

W. G. KNIGHT, 

Traveling Engineer, 
Boston & Maine R. R., 

Springfield, Mass. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS ON 
LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 



CHAPTER I. 
Boston & Maine Examination. 

i. What is combustion? 

A. Combustion is any rapid and chemical com- 
bination of the atoms of the air with any combus- 
tible material producing both light and heat. 

2. What is necessary to perfect combustion? 
A. A sufficient supply of oxygen is necessary. 

3. What is the best method of firing a locomo- 
tive? 

A. To fire light, say one or two shovelfulls at a 
time, consistent with the work the engine is doing. 

4. Describe a blower, its use and abuse. 

A. The blower is a pipe attached to the turret 
and its use is to produce a draught on the fire. Its 
abuse is the result of using it too strongly when 
cleaning the fire or when steam is up to the desired 
point. 

5. Describe the dampers, their use and abuse. 
A. Dampers are doors attached to the ash pan, 

and to regulate the admission of air to the fire 



IO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

(abuse), keep closed in engine house, also when 
drifting down grades. 

6. How does exhaust steam produce a draught 
on the fire? 

A. When exhaust steam leaves the nozzle it is 
smaller in diameter, when passing into the petticoat 
pipe it expands sufficiently to fill the petticoat pipe 
and stack, displacing the air and forming a partial 
vacuum in the front end. The passing of steam 
through the stack gives a pump-like action by form- 
ing a piston of steam in the stack. 

7. What effect does it have to leave the firebox 
open? 

A. It will lower the temperature of the firebox 
and cause unequal expansion and leaky tubes. 

8. What effect does a small exhaust nozzle have 
on the work of the engine, also on the fire? 

A. A small exhaust nozzle will cause ,a sharper 
draught, as the steam flows at a greater velocity. A 
small tip will cause back pressure in the cylinders. 

9. Describe a brick arch and its purpose. 

A. The brick arch is made of firebrick and is 
supported by lugs on the side of the firebox. Its 
purpose is to increase the path of flame and to aid 
combustion by holding the gasses in firebox for a 
longer period, so they will be more thoroughly 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING n 

mixed with the oxygen of the air and burn before 
escaping to atmosphere. 

10. What is black smoke and how prevented? 
A. Black smoke is that unconsumed part of coal 

sometimes called volatile matter; it can be pre- 
vented by carrying door on the latch and firing light, 
say one or two shovelfulls at a time. 

11. How is the draught regulated in a locomo- 
tive with a straight stack? 

A. The draught is regulated in a locomotive 
with a straight stack by a petticoat pipe and baffel 
plate. 

12. What effect if flues become stopped up? 

A. There will be a loss in heating surface and 
engine will steam poorly. 

13. What is the effect of leaks about the smoke 
box? 

A. Leaks about smoke box will destroy the par- 
tial vacuum in front end and engine will not steam. 

14. What effect have leaky steam joints and how 
located? 

A. Place the reverse lever in center notch, open 
the front end, now give the engine steam; should 
leaks be present, they will be seen at the joints. To 
test the exhaust base have a man in the cab, open 
the throttle slightly and reverse the lever from 
either corner; should the base be loose it will show 
up by this method. 



12 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

15. How should water be carried in a boiler? 

A. W,ater should be carried at a sufficient height 
to insure working dry steam, say about 2 1-2 gauges. 

16. Should special care be given to maximum 
water level with piston valve engines, and why? 

A. Yes, the piston valve, due to its construction, 
cannot be lifted from its seat as in the case of a 
slide valve after the port is closed for compression, 
and therefore is more liable to cause cylinder heads to 
be blown out in case the engine is run too full of 
water. 

17. To what temperature is water heated to pro- 
duce steam? 

A. At 14.7 atmospheric pressure water passes 
into steam at 212 F. 

18. How is steam produced in a boiler? 
A. By the application of heat to water. 

19. What is steam? 

A. Steam is an elastic gaseous vapor; it is in- 
visible under pressure, and it is formed by applica- 
tion of heat to water. 

20. What does the pressure shown on the steam 
gauge indicate? 

A. The pressure on the gauge shows pressure 
to the square inch (of each inch of internal area 
of the boiler). 

21. How is it applied in a locomotive to draw a 
train ? 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 13 

A. It passes to cylinders, giving the pistons a 
reciprocating motion, which is transferred to a ro- 
tary motion by the connecting rod to the driving 
wheels. 

22. Describe a locomotive boiler. 

A. The locomotive boiler is cylindrical in form. 
It has a firebox at one end, consisting of roof crown, 
tube back door inside and outside sheets. 
The sides, back, tube and door sheets are fastened 
to a mud ring or foundation ring. The front por- 
tion contains the draft appliances, tubes extend hor- 
izontally from the firebox to the front end. 

23. How are the firebox sheets braced to with- 
stand the steam pressure? 

A. Firebox sheets are braced by staybolts. 

24. What are the different ways of staying 
crown sheets? 

A. There are two ways of staying crown sheets ; 
the radial stay method and the crown bars and sling 
stay method. 

25. What is the dome for, also fountain, or tur- 
ret? 

A. The fountain or turret is a common connection 
from w r hich steam to the air pump, injectors, lubri- 
cators and drifting valves are connected. The tur- 
ret has an internal pipe extending up near the 
throttle valve for the purpose of delivering dry 
steam to its various connections. The dome is used 



14 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

to elevate the throttle valve, above the water for 
the purpose of getting dry steam. 

26. What is the depth of water over the crown 
sheet when it shows in the bottom gauge cock? 

A. The I. C. C. requirements are 3 inches from 
the lowest reading of the water glass or gauge 
cock, plus the thickness of crown sheet. 

27. Why are boiler checks applied as far for- 
ward as possible? 

A. To get the water into the coolest part of 
boiler. 

28. What causes staybolts to break? 
A. Unequal expansion and contraction. 

29. What effect has bad water on the boiler? . 

A. Bad water will cause boiler corrosion, foam- 
ing and scaling. Scaling will cause more coal to 
be burned as it insulates against heat. 

30. What effect does mud have on boiler, and 
scale on the flues? 

A. Flues will scale and will not conduct the heat, 
the engine will steam poorly, mud is apt to cause 
the boiler to be mud-burned. 

31. Explain cause of boiler foaming". 

A. Boiler foaming is caused by impure water, 
containing animal fats, alkli, etc. 

32. What are the dangers of boiler foaming, and 
how avoided? 

A. When an engine foams it is liable to expose 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 15 

the firebox sheets and cause them to be burned. It 
is also liable to run the water below the crown sheet 
if the engine is not shut off, since water and steam 
are so intermingled during foaming. 

33. What is meant by boiler priming? 

A. Boiler priming is when the water is carried 
too high and carried over into cylinders. 

34. What is the difference between priming and 
foaming? 

A. Priming is due to high water in the boiler, 
foaming is due to inpurities in the water. 

35. How does steam pass from the boiler to the 
cylinders and thence to the atmosphere? 

A. Steam rises to the surface of the water in 
the form of bubbles, exploding at the surface of the 
water, forming steam. When the throttle is open, 
the steam flows through the throttle valve into the 
throttle pipe and is conveyed through the dry pipe 
to the tee in the front, and here it branches off to 
each cylinder through the front end steam pipes. 
From these pipes it passes into the steam passages 
in the saddle into the steam chest, through the ad- 
mission ports, and when the valve is moved back 
by the eccentric the steam passes into the cylinder, 
through the steam port, and is cut off by the valve 
after its work is done; by expansion it passes back 
through this port, which is then connected to the 
exhaust port by the cavity of the valve flowing 



16 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

through the exhaust passage in the saddle through 
the exhaust base, nozzle, petticoat pipe, and stack 
to the atmosphere. 

36. What are the different makes of injectors in 
use on this road? 

A. The most prominent makes of injectors are 
the Hancock and Sellers. 

3J. Describe the principle on which the injector 
works. 

A. When the lever is just started steam flows 
through the lifting jet and out the overflow, form- 
ing a small vacuum in suction pipe and the pressure 
of the air on the water in tank forces it to injector. 
This in turn flows by the forcing jet, and after lever 
is pulled way open we open the forcing steam nozzle 
which forces the water into the combining tube and 
at the same time closing the overflow valve, then 
the speed of steam at its small diameter striking the 
water gives it a sufficient force to open the boiler 
check and allow it to flow to boiler. 

38. Describe the most prominent causes of in- 
jector failures? 

A. Dirty tanks, stuck check valves, air leaks in 
suction pipe, loose linings in feed hose, broken, 
worn and loose combining tubes, leaky intermediate 
overflow valves, bent priming nozzles. Tank covers 
frozen down, etc. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 17 

39. What would you examine if injector should 
fail to start? 

A. See if you have water, look at feed hose and 
strainer. 

40. What should you do if one injector should 
fail? 

A. Use the other until I could locate trouble with 
it. 

41. If both injectors should fail? 

A. After trying every resort to get them to work 
we would have to dump the fire. In winter look out 
for all pipe connections, be sure and drain the tank, 
open blow-off cock, take out saddle cocks, etc. 

42. Does water remain at the same level when 
throttle is shut off as when throttle is open? 

A. No; water rises a little when throttle is open. 

43. What would you do with a boiler checkleaking 
badly? 

A. This depends upon the type of injector; if you 
have a Sellers' improved all that will be necessary is 
to close overflow valve. If it is a Hancock you will 
have to reduce boiler pressure and take down feed 
hose and put in a wooden plug; then close overflow 
valve and connect the hose up again. Sometimes 
checks can be seated by tapping with a hammer or 
pouring on cold water and tapping lightly. With the 
new check valve I would screw down on the spin- 
dle and cut out the check valve. 



18 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

44. Is there more than one check between injector 
and boiler? 

A. Yes, there are two checks, and sometimes three, 
and on some engines we have a combined check and 
stop valve. 

45. How can you tell the difference between 
boiler checks leaking and injectors leaking? 

A. Close the throttle to the injector, should the 
leakage stop, it is evident that the injector is leak- 
ing. Should it continue it would indicate the check 
was leaking. 

46. Is there any danger in allowing gauge cocks 
to become stopped up? 

A. Yes, because we could not determine water 
level in case the water glass broke. 

47. What is the purpose of the water glass and 
what attention should it receive? 

A. It shows the amount of water in the boiler; 
should be kept clean and guarded. 

48. Why is it a bad practice to carry water too 
high in the boiler? 

A. It will work over into the cylinders and is 
liable to blow out cylinder heads, and will wash 
oil from the valve seats. 

49. What causes tanks to sweat, and how pre- 
vented? 

A. Tanks . sweat in warm weather, and the rea- 
son for this is due to the water being cooler than 



ON .LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 19 

the atmosphere which contains moisture and con- 
denses upon the tank. To prevent take off the 
cover on the manhole, put on the heater and warm 
the water slowly. 

50. How and by what means are valves, cylin- 
ders and air pumps lubricated? 

A. By ,a sight feed lubricator. 

51. How should the lubricator be filled? 

A. After the lubricator has been shut off and 
allowed to cool, open the drain and draw off the 
water, then fill it with warm oil, leaving ample 
room for the oil to expand. 

52. Describe the manner in which a sight feed 
lubricator works. 

A. When steam and water and feed valves are 
open the weight of water in condenser pipe and the 
oil being lighter than the water flows to the top of oil 
chamber, the oil then flows through the U-shaped 
tubes to bottom of feed valves, passes through the 
glass to choke plugs and steam at this point forces it 
to cylinders through the oil pipes. 

53. What would you do if one glass should 
break? 

A. If one feed glass should break shut off the 
water and feed valves and oil through independent 
oiler; keep using lubricator for the other cylinders. 

54. Where are the choke plugs and what is the 
object of them? 



20 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. Choke plugs are at the rear of the lubricator 
near the top feed arms; sometimes in the oil pipe 
near the steam chest. Their object is to force oil 
to cylinders, and to regulate flow of oil into the cylin- 
ders. 

55. If the glasses fill up, how can you clean them 
out? 

A. By opening blow-out valve under the glass. 

56. When valves appear dry, when using steam, 
and lubricator is working all* right, what would you 
do to relieve conditions? 

A. Partly close the throttle, and drop the lever 
near the corner for a short time, thereby reducing 
steam pressure in steam chest. 

57. Why is it a bad practice to keep engine oil close 
to a boiler in warm weather? 

A. It will become too warm and lose its lubricat- 
ing quality. 

58. In what manner would you care for hot bear- 
ings when discovered on the road, and what kind of 
oil used? 

A. Hot eccentrics loosen up on the strap bolts and 
insert a piece of tin and tighten them up again. Hot 
lead and tender trucks use hard cup grease and water. 
In order to get into your terminal soak a pail of 
water into the box after packing it with cup grease 
around the journal. All oil holes should be looked 
after and kept cleaned out. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 21 

In case of hot driving boxes, release the weight by 
blocking between the spring saddle and frame, run the 
wheel with the hot box up on a wedge to get the en- 
gine up far enough to the block. Should the en- 
gine be underhung chain the end of the equalizer up 
the frame next to the hot journal. 

VALVE MOTION. 

59. How many styles of valve motion are there on 
this road? 

A. There are two styles. 

60. What are they called? 

A. The Stephenson and the Walschaert Valve 
Gears. 
5i. Describe the Stephenson Gear. 

A. The Stephenson Gear consists of two eccen- 
trics which are keyed to the shaft, it has rods con- 
nected to the link, and the motion is transmitted to the 
valve by the eccentric link, link block, rocker arm 
and valve rod ; the link is movable and is suspended 
by a link, hanger link saddle and saddle pin. (Steph- 
enson Gear is floating link motion.) 

62. Describe the Walschaert Gear. 

A. The Walschaert Gear consists of an eccentric 
crank or arm attached to main pin, the motion is given 
to the link through eccentric rod attached to bottom 
of the link, which is transmitted to the valve through 



22 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 



the radius rod and combination lever. When going 
ahead we have direct motion, when backing up we have 
indirect motion. The Walschaert is a stationary link 
motion, and we change from forward motion to back 
by the indirect motion of the link. The combination 
lever gives the constant lead by shortening or length- 
ening the eccentric throw on the centers. 

63. What advantage has the Walschaert Gear over 
the Stephenson Gear? 

A. The Walschaert Gear is easier to inspect, re- 
pair ; gives chance to brace frame, and is much lighter. 

64. Describe a piston valve. 

A. A piston valve is a spool-shaped valve, having 
packing rings on its ends and moves in a removable 
bushing. 

65. Describe a slide valve. 

A. A slide valve is a rectangular valve, which has 
a D-shaped cavity in its under part, with groves on 
top to receive packing strips which are held in place 
by eliptical springs, these strips are held against the 
pressure plate or balancing plate; a hole is drilled 
into the cavity to relieve any leakage of steam by the 
packing strips. 

66. What is meant by steam lap and its use? 

A. Steam lap is the amount the valve overlaps the 
steam ports when in central position. It is to aid in 
working steam expansively. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 23 

67. What is meant by exhaust lap and its use? 
A. Exhaust lap is the amount the valve overlaps 

the steam ports on the inside when the valve is in cen- 
tral position. Its use is to get more expansion and a 
greater compression. 

68. What is meant by exhaust clearance ? 

A. Exhaust clearance is the amount the steam 
ports are open to exhaust port when valve is in cen- 
tral position, or the amount the inner edge of valve 
fails to cover steam ports in central position. 

69. What is meant by lead? 

A. Lead is the amount the steam port is open at 
the beginning of the stroke. 

70. What is meant by inside and outside admission 
valves ? 

A. An inside admission valve takes steam on the 
inside and exhausts on the ends. An outside admis- 
sion valve takes steam on the outside and exhausts it 
in the middle or inside. 

71. How and why are slide valves balanced? 

A. Slide valves are balanced by packing strips held 
against a pressure plate by eliptical springs. If valves 
were not balanced there would be a great pressure on 
top, as the under side is always open to the atmos- 
pheric pressure nearly. 

72. What is the difference in the valve motion for 
outside admission valves and inside admission valves? 

A. We have a direct rocker arm for inside admis- 



24 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

sion and an indirect rocker arm for outside admission 
valves. 

y$. What does the term "cut-off" mean? 

A. At that point of the stroke where the valve cuts 
off the admission of steam to the cylinder. 

74. What is the purpose of the link? 

A. The link serves as a means of reversing the en- 
gine and to regulate the cut-off. 

LOCOMOTIVE RUNNING. 

75. What are the engineer's duties before starting 
out with an engine? 

A. To examine work, book and see if any repairs 
have been reported on the engine, and see if they have 
been made ; examine the bulletin boards for new 
orders, etc.; see if we have proper supplies; give en- 
gine thorough inspection ; register out ; see that he has 
the correct time. 

76. What tools and supplies should be on the en- 
gine? 

A. The engineer's tool box, flags, lanterns, tor- 
pedoes, fuses, necessary coal and water, wedges, 
blocks, etc., in case of breakdown; the proper tools 
for attending to fire and sand. 

yy. What are the engineer's duties when coming 
in w r ith an engine? 

A. Make a thorough inspection of the engine, 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 25 

report any defects if found ; leave engine with good 
fire and plenty of water for the hostler. 

78. What is the most economical practice in work- 
ing steam? 

A. Working steam expansively. 

79. What are the advantages of working steam ex- 
pansively ? 

A. Economy in fuel and water. 

80. How would you detect a leaky throttle valve? 
A. By closing throttle and opening cylinder cocks ; 

should steam show it is evident the throttle valve 
leaks. 

81. How would you detect a leaky dry pipe? 

A. By closing throttle valve, opening cylinder 
cocks, should steam and water show it is evident that 
dry pipe is leaking. Be sure and have the boiler 
well filled with water before testing. 

82. How would you set up a wedge? 

A. Place the engine on a straight and level track 
and have engine on top quarter on the side you are to 
set up wedge ; then set tender brake ; put lever in for- 
ward gear and give the engine just enough steam to 
pull the driving box away from the wedge ; then raise 
wedge as far as it will go and slack it back about one- 
eighth of an inch to guard against it sticking. 

83. How would you key up a main rod? Why 
in those positions ? 



2 6 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. To key up a back end place engine on the top 
quarter, slack the set-screw, and the drive key. Then 
move engine to top forward eight, as this sometimes is 
the largest diameter of the pin, and see if it is all free, 
and you can move it sideways. Key in this position 
because all that will be necessary is to move the brass 
and the weight of main rod will be on the opposite 
brass due to the angle. Key the forward end on the 
bottom quarter, and key in like manner move to the 
center, as it might be larger at that point. Why in 
that position? Because the weight of main rod is on 
the forward brass and the brass near the key will 
move easy. 

84. How would you locate a pound in a locomo- 
tive? 

A. Place the engine on the top quarter on the side 
you are going to look for the pound ; set the tender 
brake ; have the fireman give the engine a little 
steam and work lever from front and to back cor- 
ner and watch driving boxes back and forward 
ends; cross head shoes; also see if the saddle key 
is all right. 

85. Why place engine in that position? 

A. Because you can get steam in both ends of 
cylinder. You put it on top quarter so all that will be 
necessary is to rock the driving wheel, whereas, if you 
put engine on bottom quarter you would have to move 
engine itself. Before the slack was taken up. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 27 

86. How can a wedge be kept in position when a 
wedge bolt is broken? 

A. A wedge can be kept in position when bolt is 
broken by pushing it up and wiring a nut on the ped- 
estal brace and around the jaw. 

87. How would you work an engine with a heavy 
train and a bad rail, and why? 

A. It was recommended some time ago to run a 
light throttle and a long cut off, but this does not work 
out in practice. On English roads it is recommended 
to hook the engine up short and use a moderate throt- 
tle. Experience shows this to be a good method. 

88. What would you do if tank valve should be- 
come stuck shut? 

A. Would try and blow it from its seat, using the 
injector. If it could not be done in this way, take feed 
hose down and run a stick up into the hose and unseat 
it and quickly connect up the hose. 

89. How would you test for a blow in a main 
valve? 

A. Place engine on the quarter (top preferred) 
and cover ports with the valve, open the throttle, if 
steam escapes from the stack the valve packing strips 
are leaking. Test for a cut seat in same manner, but 
open cylinder cocks. If steam shows there tne valve 
or seat will be cut. If an engine has inside clearance 
you might get a cylinder cock blow in this position and 
valve seat be tight. But such a blow would be indi- 



28 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS' 

cated more in the stack. Best way to locate a blow of 
this kind and this type of valve would be to incline 
lever until steam port is surely closed, say about the 
second notch, then open one cylinder cock on that side, 
opposite to the side that has steam. 

90. How would you test for a blow in cylinder 
packing? 

A. A cylinder packing blow will show when start- 
ing the train ; it will blow hard up to point of cut-off 
and from there to end of stroke much lighter. To test 
place the engine on the quarter lever in corner and 
open throttle, then open the cylinder cocks. Should 
steam show at both cylinder cocks it will be evident 
that piston packing leaks on that side. 

91. How would you locate on which side the pack- 
ing strips were down? 

A. Go in under the engine open the saddle cocks, 
the one that shows steam will indicate on which side 
the strips are down. 

92. How should sand be used when a locomotive 
is slipping? 

A. The engine should be shut off until it stops slip- 
ping and sand applied and throttle opened again. 

93. What is the danger of using sand on one side 
only ? 

A. It is liable to strip the engine. 

94. At what points is a locomotive's weight sup- 
ported when in working order? 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 29 

A. On the mogul and battleship type on fulcrum 
points of equalizers; on passenger engines fulcrum 
points of equalizers and lead truck center bearings. A 
10-wheel engine has four fulcrum points ; a standard 
engine has two fulcrum points. 

95. What- is a compound locomotive? 

A. A locomotive that uses its steam two times ex- 
pansively. 

96. What is the advantage of this type of locomo- 
tive over the simple? 

A. Economy in fuel and water. 

97. Why is one cylinder on a compound locomotive 
called high-pressure cylinder and the other one low- 
pressure cylinder? 

A. High pressure takes steam from boiler and low 
pressure cylinder from the high-pressure cylinder. 

98. In the Schenectady two-cylinder compound, 
what is the function of the oil dash pot? 

A. To keep the intercepting valve from slamming. 

99. Is it necessary to know that the dash pot is 
filled with oil, and why? What kind of oil should be 
used ? 

A. Yes ; if it is empty it will cause it to slam and 
even break it. Black oil is used. 

100. Explain how a Schenectady two-cylinder 
compound may be operated as a simple engine. 

A. By placing the valve leading to intercepting 



3 o PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

valve in simple position, which opens the separate ex- 
haust valve. 

101. When should a Schenectady compound be op- 
erated as a simple engine? 

A. When starting a train. 

102. Why not operate as simple when running 
fast? 

A. The engine would be apt to strip itself. The 
boiler would not make steam enough. 

103. Explain how a two-cylinder compound engine 
is changed from simple to compound. 

A. By placing the simpling valve to compound po- 
sition, allowing separate exhaust valve to close. 

104. How much water should be carried in a boiler 
of a compound, and why? 

A. About y 2 glass, should you work wet steam it 
may all condense before it gets through low pressure 
cylinder. 

105. What should be the practice in starting com- 
pound engines? 

A. Start simple and have cylinder cocks open when 
the train is started at say about 4 miles per hour ; then 
change to compound. 

106. Where is the separate exhaust valve? 

A. In the saddle in front of the intercepting valve. 

107. Is the separate exhaust valve open or closed 
when the engine is working simple? 

A. Separate exhaust is open when working simple. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 31 

108. What opens the separate exhaust valve? 

A. Separate exhaust valve is opened by air from 
main reservoir. 

109. Trace the flow of steam from the boiler to 
the cylinders and thence to the atmosphere when en- 
gine is working compound and when simple. 

A. The flow of steam with the R. I. and Schenec- 
tady compound when working compound is the same 
as the simple engine, from boiler to Tee in front end, 
then it passes through a small steam pipe to the inter- 
cepting valve, at the same time through the large 
steam pipe to the high pressure steam chest. It is 
then admitted to the cylinder by the valve through the 
steam ports. After the steam has done its work it 
passes out through the same port, through the cavity 
and exhaust port under the valve into the receiver. 
This carries the steam over to the intercepting valve, 
through which the steam flows to the low pressure 
steam chest. It is now admitted to the low pressure 
cylinder by the valve through the steam ports. When 
it has done its work it passes out through the same 
port, through the exhaust cavity and port under the 
valve to the exhaust passage in the saddle, exhaust 
pipe, exhaust nozzle and stack to the atmosphere. 

When working simple steam comes from the nig- 
gerhead or tee as before, flowing through the large 
steam pipe to the high pressure steam chest, and is 
admitted to the cylinder by the valve through the 



32 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

steam ports. After it has done its work, it passes back 
through the same port into the exhaust cavity under 
the valve, through exhaust port into the receiver, to 
the intercepting valve, out through the separate ex- 
haust valve to the exhaust cavity in saddle, exhaust 
pipe, exhaust nozzle to the atmosphere. The low 
pressure side gets its steam from the tee in the front 
end, through the small steam pipe, the steam flowing 
through the reducing valve inside of the intercepting 
valve to the low pressure steam chest. The steam is 
now admitted to the cylinder by the main valve 
through the steam ports ; after the steam has done its 
work it passes back through the same port to the ex- 
haust cavity and port under the valve, through the 
exhaust passage, exhaust nozzle and stack to the at- 
mosphere. 

no. Why is it more important to have cylinder 
cocks opened when starting a compound engine than 
a simple engine? 

A. Steam may condense before it gets through 
low pressure cylinder, and is apt to blow out a cylinder 
head. 

in. If it become necessary to disconnect a com- 
pound on the high pressure side, what should be done ? 
On the low pressure side? 

A. Disconnect same as you would with a simple 
engine and work engine simple. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 33 

ACCIDENTS TO LOCOMOTIVES. 

112. What would you do first in case of break- 
down on the road? 

A. In case of break-down on road, I should see 
that the train w,as properly protected. 

113. How are accidents and break-downs best pre- 
vented ? 

A. By a careful inspection of the locomotive. 

114. In what relation do the eccentrics set relative 
to the crank pin? 

A. The forward motion eccentric should follow 
the pin at right angles, less lead and lap of the valve. 
The back-up motion should lead the pin at right 
angles, less the lead and lap of the valve. 

115. How are they kept in their places on the 
axles ? 

A. They are kept in place by a spline and set- 
screws. 

116. How would you detect a slipped eccentric? 
A. By the engine going lame or badly out of 

square. 

117. Would you put water on a hot eccentric? 

A. No; such a course would either break strap or 
injure it so it would be useless. 

118. How would you set a slipped eccentric? 

A. First method: Place engine just a little be- 



34 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

low back center (for setting go-ahead eccentric), let 
eccentric drop down to its lowest point and secure it. 
The back-up should be set just below the forward 
center and secured as above. 

Second method : For a go-ahead eccentric, place 
engine on forward center and the lever in the back 
gear, mark valve stem at the gland ; now put the lever 
in forward gear, go in under the engine and revolve 
eccentric until the mark on valve stem coincides with 
the gland and secure it. 

Eccentric may be set also by the cylinder cocks, but 
the above are the most handy. 

119. How would you disconnect with a broken ec- 
centric strap or rod? 

A. Broken eccentric strap or rod, take down both 
eccentric straps and rods on the disabled side, tie the 
link to the end of lifter, clamp valve with a little for- 
ward port opening, take out forward cylinder cock, 
' increase lubrication on that side. 

120. Broken reverse lever or quadrant? 

A. Broken reverse lever or quadrant, fit a block 
in the top of the link above the link block on one side 
to hold the link so the engine will start the train. 
Loosen the nuts on balance spring, so the link will 
not jump off from the block. 

121. Broken reach rod, reverse arm? 

A. Broken reverse lever or quadrant, remove 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 35 

broken parts and proceed to block as you did with 
broken reverse lever or quadrant. 

122. Block on how many links, and why? 

A. Block on one link only, as other side conforms 
to that block ; if two were used one might fly out when 
running. 

123. Broken tumbling shaft? 

A. Remove the broken parts, disconnect the link 
hangers, put the reverse lever in full black gear. This 
will bring the right hanger and lifter out of the way. 
Now pull out the broken portion of the tumbling 
shaft, next block the links where the engine will start 
its train, fit these blocks between the link block and 
the top of the link, allowing a good margin for start- 
ing the train in bad places. 

124. Broken lifting arm, link hanger, saddle, or 
saddle pin? 

A. In all three breaks the broken parts should 
be removed and the link hangers taken off, the link 
should be blocked where engine will start the train; 
the reverse lever secured so it cannot be moved, as 
the lifters would hit the link and lead to further 
damage. 

125. Broken transmission bar? 

A. Remove broken parts, clamp valve with a 
little forward port opening for lubrication, oil 
guides well; take out front cylinder cock. 

126. Broken link block pin? 



36 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. If link will not clear the lower rocker arm, 
take down both eccentric straps and rods, clamp 
valve with a little forward port opening for 
lubrication, oil the guides well. If the link clears the 
rocker arm and only short distance to go leave it 
up. 

127. Broken lower rocker arm? 
A. Same as 126. 

128. With one link blocked, what would you 
guard against? 

A. Reversing engine and dropping the lever in 
the corner. 

129. Broken rocker shaft, top rocker-arm, and 
valve stem? 

A. Disconnect valve rod and take out the broken 
shaft and top rocker-arm ; if there is enough left of 
the rocker shaft to hold bottom rocker-arm it will 
run O. K. ; if in doubt take it out; leave main rod 
up as before stated; crack front port for lubrica- 
tion. If you take out the bottom rocker shaft take 
down both eccentrics, straps and rods if any dis- 
tance to go. 

130. In case a slide valve yoke, or stem becomes 
broken inside of steam chest, how can the break- 
age be located? 

A. It will be discovered by engine working 
against itself or bucking badly. Place the crank pin 
on top or lower quarter if you can and reverse the 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 37 

lever forward and back; if steam comes from one 
cylinder cock only you may know that it is on that 
side. 

131. After locating a breakage of this kind, how 
would you proceed to put the engine in safe run- 
ning order? 

A. If there is a relief valve on front of the steam 
chest set rocker-arm straight up and down, take 
out the relief valve, push the valve back until it 
strikes the stem and it will be central, then fit a 
block or stick in relief valve long enough to hold 
valve back, when relief valve is screwed in .again, 
clamp valve stem, take down valve rod ; and if 
there is no relief valve in front of the steam chest 
the cover would have to come up and valve blocked 
central. Fit this back to give the valve a little 
forward port opening for lubrication; take out for- 
ward cylinder cock. 

132. Broken main slide valve, valve seat, and 
steam chest? 

A. Take off steam chest cover, take out the 
valve, block over steam inlet ports to the chest, 
having blocked high enough so when the cover is 
put back on it will hold the blocking in place ; take out 
both cylinder cocks. If it is an old style saddle 
where steam enters at side of the chest, I would 
put a blind gasket in the joint between the steam 
chest and saddle. 



38 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

133. Broken crosshead or guides? 

A. Take down valve rod, clamp the valve cen- 
tral, take down the main rod and crosshead 
blocked ahead. Both cylinder cocks should be 
taken out, secure piston by tieing it forward by 
rope or chain. This can also be blocked by steam tieing 
a rope or chain around as above to guard against 
it working back when steam is shut off; if you do 
this close the cylinder cock on the side of the 
piston that has steam. 

134. Broken piston? Piston rod, and forward 
cylinder head? 

A. Any of these defects will usually take out 
the front cylinder head, assume this to be the case, 
disconnect the valve rod clamp, the valve central, 
remove the broken parts, take down the main rod. 
block the crosshead back, but, however, should it 
be the forward cylinder head only, disconnect the 
valve rod clamp, the valve with a little back port 
opening for lubrication, removing the back cylin- 
der cock, oiling the guides well. A broken piston, 
take off the broken parts, clamp the valve central. 
If a short distance to go leave the main rod and 
eccentrics up. 

135. Loose follower bolt — how would you lo- 
cate it? 

A. Loose follower bolt would be at once de- 
tected by a bad pound while engine was drifting. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 39 

136. What would you do with a loose or broken 
follower bolt? 

A. The engine should be stopped at once, the 
cylinder head taken off and bolt tightened or re- 
moved. 

137. Broken side rod, eight-wheel engine? 

A. Remove broken rod, also corresponding rod 
on the other side. 

138. Broken side rod, ten-wheel engine, back 
section? Front section? 

A. Back section : Remove broken rods and cor- 
responding section on the other side. Front 
section : Remove all side rods. 

139. Broken main crank pin? 

A. Disconnect the valve rod, clamp the valve 
central, take down the main rod and all side rods, 
block crosshead back and take out the hack cylin- 
der cock. 

140. Broken driving spring overhung engine? 
A. The engine should be raised up level with 

jacks or wedges, block over back driving box to 
carry the engine level. If it is the main spring take 
it out and block up the front end of the equalizer. 

142. Broken driving spring or hanger, under- 
hung engines? 

A. Raise the engine up with a wedge or jack, 
block over the back driving box and chain the 
equalizer to the frame on the side next to the 



40 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

broken spring or hanger. A convenient way to 
raise the engine up in case of a broken spring or 
hanger, for instance a back spring hanger. Place 
a wedge in front of the main driver on that side 
and run the engine up on it. Since the driving box 
has the main frame resting on it, the wedge will 
lift the entire engine on that side ,and a space will 
be found between the back driving box and engine 
frame into which the block is to be placed. After 
doing this pry the equalizer up and chain it to the 
lower rail of the frame. 

143. Broken equalizing beam? 

A. Run the main driver up on a wedge or jack 
up the main frame under the cab riser and block 
over the back driving box. Should this be the old 
style engine equalizer or overhung type block be- 
tween the broken end and the main frame, this giv- 
ing the engine some use of the back driving spring. 
Should this be an underhung engine, jack up in like 
manner and chain the broken equalizer to the 
frame. (B. & M. R. R. only.) 

144. Broken engine truck center pin on Mogul? 
A. Put piece of a tie or rail across front of the 

engine frame and chain forward end of long inter- 
mediate equalizer to it, block over forward drivers. 

145. Broken intermediate equalizer on Mogul? 
A. Raise the engine up to its normal position, 

block between cross equalizer and the boiler, or 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 41 

chain cross equalizer to frame would serve. If you 
do not want to use springs first remove broken 
parts and block over forward drivers. 

146. Broken front tire on Mogul? 

A. Run the forward pair of drivers up on wedge 
or jack them up to clear the rail, remove the oil 
cellar and fit ,a block in its place. Cut one side of 
this block to fit the journal (half round) and when 
the engine is raised up in this position it will fit 
snugly between the pedestal brace and journal, 
placing some oily waste before putting it in finally. 
While the engine is in this position block between 
the spring saddle and frame to take the weight off 
from this pair of drivers, cut out the driver brake. 
Should the side rods be injured and interfere they 
would have to be taken down. 

147. Broken driving axle, eight-wheel engine, out- 
side of driving box? 

A. Generally taken in the examination as a back 
driver; if so, jack engine up above its normal posi- 
tion, take out the oil cellar and fit a block that will 
bear evenly upon journal (half round), then put some 
oily waste between this and the journal. Put a short 
tie or rail on the footboard, put a chain around the 
tie or rail and around brace on frame under footboard, 
raise up the back end of the tie to take up slack of 
the chain and block between the tie and tender ; block 
under tender springs to keep from breaking them 



42 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

down. Next chain around engine frame on disabled 
side and fasten to opposite side of the tender to keep 
the good flange against the rail ; be sure and have 
chain wedged up tight. Disconnect side rods on both 
sides, put collars on good main pins, cut out driver 
brake and block between spring saddle and frame over 
broken driver to get use of good main springs. Now 
let engine down and tender will carry part of its 
weight. 

If a main driver is broken outside of the box, dis- 
connect the valve rod, clamp the valve central, take 
down the main rod and both side rods. Block the 
cross head back and take out the back cylinder cock. 
Jack the engine up level and block over the back driv- 
ing box to carry the engine level. Then jack up the 
broken axle, take out the cellar and place hard wood 
block between the axle and the pedestal to hold the 
axle level. Oil this block well and proceed carefully. 

148. Broken main driving axle, ten-wheel engine, 
outside of driving box? 

A. If broken outside of box, disconnect the same 
as with an eight-wheel engine. Jack up broken end 
of axle and take out celler, fit a block between the axle 
and pedestal, put a block between the spring saddle 
and the frame to transfer the weight from this wheel 
to the others. If the front and back springs are not 
strong enough to carry the weight, then you would 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 43 

have to jack up the back end of the engine and block 
over back box. 

149. How do you cover ports with valves? 

A. Generally by plumbing rocker-arm, but should 
it be broken move valve stem forward as far as it will 
go, then mark it by the gland, and then move back 
as far as it will go and mark in same manner, and the 
middle point between these two marks set at stuffing 
box will bring valve central. 

150. Broken back tires? 

A. Back driving tire. Raise the engine up a little 
more than level to allow for settling. Jacks or wedges 
could be used. Put a tie or short piece of rail on the 
footboard, put a chain around the tie and through 
the brace of the frame under the footboard. Raise up 
the back end of the tie to take up the slack of the 
chain and block between the tie and tender. Block 
under the tender springs so not to break them down, 
then let the engine down and the tender will carry 
part of its weight. Jack up the axle with the broken 
tire, remove the celler and fit a block between 
the axle and the pedestal, and put a block between the 
spring saddle and the frame. Then put a chain from 
the disabled side of the engine to the opposite side of 
the tender and twist it up tight to keep the flange of 
the good tire against the rail and cut out the driver 
brake and proceed with care. 



44 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

151. Broken tire on trailing wheel on Atlantic type 
engine? 

A. Do just the same as for back tire on a ten- 
wheel engine. 

152. Broken engine truck axle on Mogul, and 
four-wheel truck? 

A. The quickest way to get out of this break-down 
is to chain engine truck axle to a tie placed across the 
engine frame when engine is down, then put a jack 
under breast beam, raise engine to its normal position 
and block over forward drivers. Be sure the good 
wheel clears the rail. 

Four-wheel truck. Jack up the front end of the en- 
gine, remove the wheels if necessary; jack up the 
truck frame and chain it to the engine frame. To 
relieve some of the strain from the chains, put blocks 
between engine frame and truck frame over or near 
the good axle. 

153. Broken tender wheel or axle? 

A. Should the wheel be broken, it is sometimes 
convenient to place a tie across the tender truck frame 
and allow the broken part of the wheel to run up to 
it and chain it securely to the axle. This will allow 
you to slide this pair of wheels to clear the main line. 
Should the axle be broken, place a rail or tie across 
the tender blocking it up to clear the tank dicky and 
chain the truck frame to it, cut out the tender brake, 
proceed into the first siding. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 45 

154. What would you do with a bursted flue? 

A. A flue that had burst or was leaking badly 
should be plugged. If I could not use an iron plug, 
would take a long piece of wood and taper the end to 
fit, drive it into the flue and let it burn off. 



BREAK-DOWNS— WALSCHAERT VALVE 
GEAR. 

155. Broken eccentric crank or rod? 

A. Take off the broken parts if you can block the 
radius bar in the center of the link and let the com- 
bination lever and union link stay up. This will give 
you lap and lead travel of the valve and will help you 
in starting your train and realize some of the power 
on the broken side. Should you be unable to do this 
clamp the valve with a little forward port opening for 
lubrication, taking out the front cylinder cock. Then 
tie the forward end of the radius bar up to- the run- 
ning board, let the rear end ride in the bottom of the 
link, take off the broken parts, disconnect the suspen- 
sion bar oil guides well 

In all Walschaert valve gear brake-downs be sure 
the combination lever clears the cross-head and wrist 
pin. 

156. Broken radius bar? 

A. Discount the broken parts, clamp the valve 



46 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

with a little forward port opening for lubrication, 
take out the forward cylinder cock. Tie the broken 
end of the radius bar up to the running board and 
block the back end central in the link. 

157. Broken combination lever? 

A. Discount the broken combination lever and the 
union link. On some engines the radius bar can be 
fastened on to the valve stem at the connection used 
by the combination lever; if so do this and the result 
will be the use of both sides of the engine. This may 
make the engine a little out of square but you can get 
into your terminal all right. Should you not be able 
to do this you will have to take down the combina- 
tion lever and union link clamp, the valve with a little 
forward port opening for lubrication, block the radius 
bar in the center of the link and tie up the forward 
end to the running board. Disconnect the suspension 
arm or hanger, increase lubricator feed on that side, 
take out the forward cylinder cock. 

158. Broken crosshead arm? 

A. Disconnect just the same as in 157. 

159. Broken suspension arm or hanger? 

A. Disconnect and block the same as with a link 
hanger in the Stephenson valve gear. 

160. Broken reverse arm? 

A. Disconnect and block as in the Stephenson gear 
for reverse arm. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 47 

AIR BRAKE, 

1. What is an air brake? 

A. A method of stopping trains and operated by 
compressed air. 

2. What is the standard air brake in use on this 
road ? 

A. Westinghouse automatic air brake is the 
standard. 

3. What compresses the air? 

A. The air pump located on the locomotive. 

PUMPS. 

4. What are the different sizes of pumps in use 
on this road? 

A. The 8-inch and 9^-inch pump. 

5. Name the principal working parts of the 8 
and 9^-inch pumps. 

A. 9^-inch pump has main stem piston, main 
slide valve, differential piston and connection rod, 
reversing slide valve, reversing valve rod and plate 
in the steam end. In the air end we have the air 
piston, two receiving and two discharging air 
valves. 

8-inch pump we have the main steam piston, 
main valve, reversing valve, reversing rod and 
plate, and reversing piston, five in all. The air end 
has the air piston, two receiving and two discharge 
valves. 



48 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

6. Explain how a pump should be started and 
run on the road. 

A. Slowly, to allow the condensation to escape 
from the steam cylinder; also to accumulate suf- 
ficient pressure in the air cylinder to form a cushion 
for the piston. 

7. How should the air cylinder be oiled, and 
what kind of oil? 

A. The air cylinder should be oiled with small 
amount of valve oil, and then through the little 
cup provided for that purpose, and never through 
air strainer, as it will gum up air valves and pass- 
ages. 

8. What is the maximum speed a pump should 
be run, .and why? 

A. Not over 120 single strokes per minute, or 
fast enough to maintain a full pressure, and allow 
the pump governor to stop it once in awhile. 

9. . Give some of the causes of a pump heating. 
A. Pump running at too high rate of speed, 

working against too high a pressure, leaky air 
cylinder, packing rings broken or stuck inlet or 
discharge valves, insufficient lubrication. 

10. If a pump runs hot, how would you proceed 
to cool it? 

A. First reduce speed of the pump, then put small 
quantity of good oil in air cylinder, running pump 
slowly until cooled. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 49 

11. If a pump stops, how can you tell whether 
the trouble is in the pump or in the governor? 

A. Break the joint between the governor and 
pump; if steam did not get by governor, would 
know that the pump was not getting steam and 
trouble was in governor; if the pump was getting 
steam and pump stopped, trouble would be in 
pump. On modern pumps there is a pet cock pro- 
vided to test the governor. 

12. State the common causes for the pump 
stopping. 

A. Loose nut on the piston rod in the air cylin- 
der, a broken reversing valve rod, one disengaged 
from the reversing plate, a loose reversing valve plate, 
bad packing ring in main valve, or reversing piston 
in 8-inch pump, or lack of proper oiling. 

13. If the pump stopped on the road, what 
would you do to start it? 

A. I would reduce the main reservoir pressure, 
then close the throttle to the pump and open it 
quickly to unseat the governor valve; should this 
not start it, I would remove the cap over the re- 
versing valve rod and put in a little valve oil. 
Should it then not start, I would take off the plug- 
in the lower cylinder head (air end) and see if the 
nuts were off from the air piston; this last named 
defect would not allow the reversing valve rod to 
operate the reverse valve. 



50 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

GOVERNORS. 

14. What stops a pump after pressures have 
been obtained? 

A. The pump governor. 

15. How many styles of governors in use on 
this road. Name them? 

A. Two. Single and duplex pump governors. 

16. Explain the working of the governor. 

A. The governor is operated by air from the 
main reservoir. The air enters the governor under 
a copper diaphram, which has a spring and an ad- 
justing screw on top of this diaphram and generally 
adjusted to hold a pressure of 90 to 130 pounds, 
depending on the type of equipment; the diaphram 
forms a small chamber, into which the air accumu- 
lates until the tension of the spring is overcome 
and the diaphram depressed slightly. Attached to 
the diaphram is a little valve known as the pin 
valve, and its duty is to allow the air in the cham- 
ber to pass into another little cylinder below, 
operating the piston which controls the steam 
valve of the governor. Should the main reservoir 
pressure drop slightly when the governor valve is 
closed the pin valve will reseat and the little re- 
lief port will let the air out that was holding the 
steam valve on its seat. The steam pressure acting 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 51 

under the governor steam valve will open the 
valve and allow it to pass to the pump. 

17. To what pressure is the pump governor con- 
nected? 

A. To the main reservoir. 

18. How can a governor be adjusted to obtain 
a higher or lower pressure? 

A. By adjusting nut and spring. To increase 
pressure screw down on the nut; to decrease press- 
ure unscrew the nut. 

19. What is the object of the relief port in the 
governor, and why should it be kept clean? 

A. It is to relieve the pressure on top of the 
governor piston after pin valve has been seated, and 
should be kept clean to have the pump start 
promptly. 

20. If the pin valve leaks, what effect will it 
have on the pump? 

A. Pump will be slow in starting, and if it were 
so great that the relief port could not relieve it 
would cause the pump to stop. 

21. What is the steam drip for? 

A. Steam drip is provided to relieve any steam 
that leaks by the governor piston rod which is at- 
tached to governor steam valve. 

22. What is the effect if the steam drip gets 
clogged or frozen up? 



52 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. Steam at nearly boiler pressure will form 
under the governor piston and the pump will run 
air pressure up to boiler pressure or very nearly. 

MAIN RESERVOIR. 

23. Where does the air go to from the pump? 
A. To the main reservoir. 

24. What is the object of the main reservoir? 

A. To store a large volume of air used in releasing 
and recharging the brakes. 

25. On some locomotives the main reservoirs are 
extra large. Why is this? 

A. Because we need a larger volume of air to re- 
lease brakes and a recharge on long trains. 

26. Why does water accumulate in the main reser- 
voir, and how often should it be drained? 

A. The main reservoir should be drained at the 
end of every trip ; all air passes here before going to 
the brake pipe, resulting in a condensation and water 
formation here. 

2J. How much pressure should be carried in the 
main reservoir with single governor? How much with 
duplex governor with low speed brake? 

A. 90 lbs. single governor; duplex governor no. 

28. What is excess pressure? 

A. Difference between train line and main reser- 
voir pressures. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 53 

29. What is excess pressure used for? 

A. To release brakes, recharge train line and aux- 
iliaries. 

30. How much excess pressure do we carry. 
A. 20 lbs. 

31. Where does main reservoir pressure begin, 
and where does it end? 

A. It begins at the discharge valve of the pump 
and ends at the rotary valve on lap position and at the 
feed valve on running position. 

32. Which hand on the gauge indicates the main 
reservoir pressure? 

A. Red hand, 90 lbs. 

33. Which hand indicates the brake pipe pressure, 
and what should it be? 

A. Black hand, 70 lbs. 

ENGINEER'S BRAKE VALVE. 

34. What is the standard type of engineer's brake 
valve used in road service on this system? 

A. 1892 model equalizing and discharge valve and 
E. T. equipment. 

35. On switching engines with and without the 
straight air equipment? 

A. The Westinghouse combination automatic and 
straight air brake. 



54 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

36. Why is the 92 model valve called an equalizing 
discharge valve? 

A. Because it mechanically measures out the 
amount of air, no matter how long the train line may 
be. 

37. Name the different positions of the 92 model 
brake valve handle. 

A. Full release, running lap, service application 
and emergency. 

38. What divides the main reservoir pressure from 
the brake pipe pressure when valve is in running po- 
sition ? 

A. The feed valve. 

39. When in lap position? 
A. The rotary valve. 

40. On which side of the rotary valve is main res- 
ervoir pressure? 

A. Top side. 

41. Explain the effect of a cut rotary valve or seat. 
A. I would not have any excess pressure. When 

brakes were applied they would gradually release ow- 
ing to the main reservoir pressure leaking into the 
brake pipe through the rotary valve and forcing triple 
pistons to release position. 

42. How would you test for a leaky rotary valve? 
A. Make a 20-pound reduction in brake pipe and 

place valve on lap, cut out the brake valve and watch 
black hand ; if it raises in pressure it is a leaky rotary 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 55 

valve. Another way, put valve on lap and start pump, 
cut out brake valve and watch black hand. 

43. In what position of the brake valve is there a 
direct communication between main reservoir and 
brake pipe? 

A. Full release. 

44. What is the duty of the small reservoir con- 
nected to the brake valve? 

A. To increase the volume of chamber D pressure. 

45. If the pipe leading to the equalizing reservoir 
should leak, what would be the effect? 

A. When brakes are applied they would go on too 
hard, and as long as the handle is left in lap position 
you will also have a blow from train line exhaust. 

46. When the equalizing piston fails to seat, how 
can you tell if it is a leakage of equalizing reservoir 
pressure or dirt on seat of the valve? 

A. Cut out the brake valve, put the brake valve in 
full release ; should this stop the leak it would be due 
to leakage in equalizing reservoir pipe. Should it 
continue it is evident that dirt was on the seat of the 
valve. I would then try to blow it off by placing the 
handle in full release and then back to emergency sev- 
eral times. 

47. If the pipe connection between the brake valve 
and small reservoir got broken, what would you do? 

A. I would plug up the pipe, also plug up train 



5 6 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

line exhaust in the brake valve and proceed, using the 
brake valve in emergency position carefully. 

48. In making a service application of the brakes, 
how is the air exhausted from the brake pipe? 

A. Where we reduce chamber D pressure above 
the equalizing piston, the train line pressure on the 
under side forces the piston up and allows the train 
line pressure to escape through the exhaust valve. 

49. What pressure does the black hand show di- 
rectly ? 

A. Chamber D pressure. 

50. How does the brake pipe pressure escape 
when handle is placed in emergency position? 

A. Direct to atmosphere through the direct appli- 
cation and supply port and the direct application and 
exhaust port. 

51. If the equalizing discharge piston becomes 
gummed or corroded, what would be the result? 

A. It may result in emergency application on a 
short train. Too great a reduction would have to be 
made in a service application and set brakes too hard 
on any train. 

52. What will be the result of leaving the handle 
of the brake valve in full release position too long and 
then moving it to running position? 

A. Brake pipe pressure would become overcharged 
and w r hen moved to running position the brake pipe 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 57 

leakage would apply the brakes, as the feed valve will 
not take care of any pressure above its adjustment. 

53. How is the brake pipe pressure regulated with 
the 92 model valve? 

A. By a feed valve. 

54. What attention should the feed valve re- 
ceive? 

A. It should be kept clean and properly ad- 
justed. 

55. How will the presence of dirt and gum affect 
it? 

A. Will not regulate the pressures and makes a 
sluggish feed valve. 

56. Explain use of warning port. 

A. It is to call the attention of engineer to 
position of brake valve handle. 

57. What pressure escapes at this port? 
A. Main reservoir. 

58. If it gets plugged up, does it affect the 
operation of the brake valve? 

A. No. 

59. Where is the air stored on the engine? 

A. In the main reservoir, auxiliary reservoir, 
brake pipe and equalizing reservoir. 

60. Where stored on each car? 

A. In the auxiliary reservoir and brake pipe. 



58 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

TRIPLE VALVES AXD AUXILIARY 
RESERVOIRS. 

61. Where does the auxiliary reservoir directly 
obtain its air? 

A. From the triple valve. 

62. About how long does it take to charge an 
auxiliary reservoir, .and why? 

A. About 70 seconds on account of the feed 
groove in triple piston bushing being so small. 

63. About how large is the port from the brake 
pipe to the auxiliary reservoir in the triple valve? 

A. 3.32 of an inch, or size of lead in pencil. 

64. Why is this port made so small? 

A. So that all auxiliaries will charge alike 
throughout the train. 

65. What is the duty of the triple valve? 

A. To charge the auxiliaries, apply and release 
the brakes. 

66. How many forms of triple valve are there 
in use on this road? 

A. Two. The plain and quick acting triple 
valves. 

67. Difference between them. 

A. The quick acting triple has a set of valves 
called the emergency valve, which the plain has 
not. 



-ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 59 

68. Name the working parts of the plain triple 
valve. 

A. The triple piston, slide and graduating valve, 
graduating stem and spring. 

69. Name the working parts of the quick action 
triple valve. 

A. The triple piston, slide and graduating valve, 
emergency piston and emergency or rubber seated 
valve, train line check valve, graduating stem and 
spring. 

70. What are the duties of the triple piston? 

A. To charge auxiliary, apply and release 
brakes, move the slide and graduating valve. 

71. What pressures govern its movement? 

A. The brake pipe and auxiliary reservoir press- 
ures. 

J2. How do these pressures compare with 
brakes fully charged? 

A. Equal. 

73. Name the pressure on the plain side of the 
triple piston. 

A. Brake pipe pressure. 

74. What are the duties of the slide valve? 

A. Open and close communication between the 
auxiliary and brake cylinder, and brake cylinder 
and atmosphere. 

75. What are the duties of the graduating valve? 



60 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. To graduate the amount of air from .auxiliary 
to brake cylinder. 

76. What is the principle that applies and re- 
leases the brakes? 

A. The difference of pressures of air on either 
side of triple piston. 

7J. Explain where the air comes from that 
enters the brake cylinder in service application. 

A. Air comes from auxiliary reservoir to the 
brake cylinder through the graduating valve. 

78. In emergency application, with each kind of 
triple valve? 

A. With the quick acting triple it comes from 
auxiliary reservoir and brake pipe. With the plain 
it comes from the auxiliary only. 

79. How do you cut out a plain triple valve? 
And quick action? 

A. Cut out plain triple with a cut-out cock in 
side of triple. Quick action is cut out by' cut-out 
cock in crossover pipe located between auxiliary 
and triple. 

80. What position must the triple piston be in 
to charge an auxiliary reservoir? 

A. Full release. 

81. Do plain and quick action triple valves 
operate alike with service application? 

A. Yes. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 6l 

82. With plain triple valves, emergency applica- 
tion, will the brakes apply any harder ? 

A. No. 

83. Will they apply any quicker? 
A. Yes. 

84. With the quick action triple valve, an 
emergency application made, will the brakes apply 
any quicker and harder than with a service appli- 
cation? 

A. Yes, they will apply quicker and harder. 

85. How much harder, and where did the extra 
pressure come from? 

A. 10 lbs. harder. The extra pressure comes 
from brake pipe. 

86. By reducing the brake pipe pressure five 
pounds, how many pounds of air will go from the 
auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinders? 

A. 5 lbs. or a trifle more. 

87. What prevents more from going? 
A. The graduating valve reseating. 

88. When the brakes are fully applied, how do 
the pressures in the auxiliary reservoir and brake 
cylinder compare? 

A. They are equal. 

89. With 8-inch piston travel, how much is 
necessary to reduce brake pipe pressure to accom- 
plish this? 

A. 20 lbs. to 25 lbs. 



62 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

90. What will be the effect of a leak in the 
emergency valve, triple piston in release position? 

A. There will be a bad leak in brake pipe press- 
ure; it would set brakes should the pump not supply 
the leak; it would also cause a constant blow at 
the triple exhaust. 

91. What effect will a broken graduating spring 
have on a long train? On a short train? 

A. Broken graduating spring on long train would 
have no effect, as the brake pipe reduction would be 
so gradual. On short train it would make a kicker 
or cause all brakes to be applied in emergency. 

92. What is the effect of a broken carrying pin, 
brakes applied in service application? 

A. Broken carrying pin, service application of 
brakes, would cause all brakes to apply in emergency. 

93. If one quick action triple goes to emergency, 
will it affect the other brakes in the train? 

A. It will, because when the pressure is suddenly 
reduced in the brake pipe it causes all others to be 
reduced in like manner. 

94. How would you locate the defective triple? 
A. On short passenger trains there is generally 

men that can be stationed at each car and watch each 
brake ; as it applies on long passenger or freight, turn 
the angle cock behind 5 or 8 cars and watch them, 
and so on through the train until it was located. 

95. When applying the brakes in service applica- 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 63 

tion, can you detect if any of the brakes go to quick 
action? Explain. 

A. Yes. If brakes are working O. K. the brake 
pipe exhaust at brake valve will be gradual and ac- 
cording to length of the train, but if they go to the 
emergency the brake pipe exhaust at the brake valve 
will be short and quick, regardless of the length of 
the train. 

96. If triple piston packing rs worn and brakes are 
released in running position, what is liable to result? 

A. Brakes would stick, owing to the fact you could 
not build up the brake pipe pressure sufficient to force 
the triple piston to release position. 

CYLINDERS AND PISTON TRAVEL. 

97. What is meant by piston travel? 

A. The distance the piston travels in brake cylin- 
der. 

98. What is the standard piston travel for tenders 
and cars? 

A. Eight inches. 

99. If the piston travel is more than 8 inches what 
is the effect? 

A. It reduces the braking power. 

100. What is the shortest piston travel to be had 
on tenders and cars with safety, and why? 

A. Five inches; 4 inches would give too great a 



64 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

braking power and skid wheels, and less than 4 inches 
the piston might not get by the leakage groove in the 
brake cylinder. 

101. What is the leakage groove in the brake cyl- 
inder for? 

A. To allow any air that might leak by the slide 
valve to escape. 

102. What causes the piston to return to release 
position when the pressure has been released from the 
cylinder ? 

A. A coil spring which is around piston rod causes 
piston to return to the cylinder. 

103. How is the piston travel adjusted on tenders 
and cars? 

A. By dead levers. 

104. How is the piston travel adjusted on engines? 
A. By adjusting screws and cam nuts. 

105. Has the piston travel anything to do with 
pressure obtained in the brake cylinder? 

A. It has everything to do with pressure obtained 
in brake cylinder. 

106. Should a brake be cut out before adjusting 
piston travel, and why? 

A. It should. To prevent personal injury. 

107. What should be done after repairs were com- 
pleted, such as adjusting piston travel, and why? 

A. It should be cut in and brakes tried, to know 
that the brake is working with the proper adjustment. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 65 



PRESSURE RETAINING VALVES. 

108. Where are the pressure retaining valves gen- 
erally located? 

A. At the top of the car near brake wheel, or in 
some convenient place where trainmen can get at it. 

109. To what are they connected? 

A. To exhaust port of the triple valve. 

no. What is the use of the pressure retaining 
valve ? 

A. To retain a certain pressure in the brake cylin- 
der when brakes are released, which retards speed of 
train while recharging brake pipe and auxiliary reser- 
voirs. 

in. How much pressure is retained? 

A. 15 lbs. 

112. Name the defects which cause the retaining 
valve to be inoperative. 

A. Dirt on seat of the valve or the pipe broken off. 

113. Which end of the train should they be used 
on, and why? 

A. Head end of train, to keep train bunched when 
releasing on long trains. 

114. Retainers in use, recharge, will the brakes 
apply any harder on second application? 

A. Yes. 

115. Give reasons? 



66 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. Because we already have 15 lbs. in brake cylin- 
der to build on. 

116. Who should be authority for number used? 
A. The engineer. 

TRAIN AIR SIGNAL. 

117. What is the use of the train air signal? 

A. It serves as a communication between engine 
and train. 

118. What pressure should be carried in the signal 
line? 

A. 45 lbs. 

119. Where is this supply taken from? 
A. The main reservoir. 

120. Name the valves used to operate the air sig- 
nal on the engine. 

A. The reducing valves and signal valve. 

121. Duty of reducing valve. 

A. It reduces main reservoir pressure to signal 
pressure and is adjusted at 45 lbs. 

122. How can the reducing valve be cut out? 

A. By a small plug cock in side of reducing valve. 

123. How is it adjusted? 

A. By an adjusting screw and spring. 

124. Duty of signal valve and how operated? 

A. It's duty is to blow the whistle. The signal 
valve is charged to equal pressures above and below 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 67 

the rubber diaphram, to which is attached the signal 
valve. A quick reduction in the air signal pipe causes 
a reduction on top of rubber diaphram, allowing the 
pressure in under to be the greater, forcing diaphram 
up, lifting valve from its seat and allowing the air to 
pass to the whistle, causing it to blow. The valve is 
reseated again by pressure from the main reservoir. 

125. If the whistle blows when releasing brakes 
what does it signify? 

A. Trouble is with the pressure reducing valve in 
allowing too high a pressure to build up in the signal 
pipe, which feeds back into the main reservoir. When 
release is made this feeding back into main reservoir 
causes a reduction in signal pipe pressure and the 
whistle to blow. 

126. What effect will a leak have in the signal line? 
A. It will cause the whistle to blow frequently. 

127. Where would you look for the trouble if the 
signal pipe does not charge? 

A. At the reducing valve. 

128. If the signal pipe is charged and whistle will 
not blow, where would you look for the trouble? 

A. In the whistle itself the bell is too high or too 
low, or the stem is bent and bell would not come over 
the bowl; also look at the signal valve. 

129. Should the several parts of the signal equip- 
ment be kept clean, and what is the result if neglected? 



68 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. It should be kept clean, otherwise it would not 
give correct signal. 

130. Is any change in the signal equipment neces- 
sary when coupling two or more locomotives together? 

A. No. 

STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE. 

131. What additional parts are needed on engine 
and tender to have straight air brake in connection 
with the automatic brake? 

A. A straight air brake valve and a double seated 
check valve, a reducing valve, a brake cylinder safety 
valve and the necessary piping. 

132. What is the duty of the double check valve, 
and how does it operate? 

A. The double check valve is located on both en- 
gine and tender in the pipe leading from triple valve 
to the brake cylinder. Its duty is to stop the flow of 
air to the straight air brake valve during an automatic 
application, and to stop the flow of air to the triple 
valve during a straight air application. 

133. What pressure should the reducing valve 
used with this brake be set at? 

A. 45 lbs. 

134. What pressure should the safety valves be 
set at? 

A. 53 lbs. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 69 

135. How do you operate the straight air brake? 
A. The pressure is taken from the main reservoir. 

Supplying the automatic brake, it passes through the 
reducing valve, which is set at 45 lbs.; then through 
the straight air brake valve to the double seated check 
valve, then to the brake cylinders. 

136. What are the safety valves for? 

A. In case the reducing valve gets out of order, it 
will prevent brake cylinder pressure getting too high. 

137. Can the straight air and automatic be used 
separate from each other? 

A. Yes. The double seated check valve allows 
this. 

TRAIN HANDLING. 

138. Should an engineer know the condition of the 
brakes before leaving the engine house? 

A. Yes. 

139. Should brakes be tested before leaving a 
terminal ? 

A. Yes. To know how many brakes he has and 
that they can be operated from engine. 

140. At what other time must the brakes be 
tested ? 

A. When any change of train line is made. 

141. What is meant by a running test? 



7 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. Applying brakes before shutting off steam, 
making not less than 5 pounds to 7 pounds reduction. 

142. At what points of the road should the run- 
ning test be made? 

A. At points where it is considered essential to 
know the condition of the brake ; say, before descend- 
ing grades, before approaching stations; also when 
train is under way after leaving stations where cars 
have been picked up or set off. 

143. What is meant by terminal test of brakes? 
Explain details, giving inspectors' duties also. 

A. A terminal test of the brake is the charging of 
the entire train, making a full service application and 
its inspection. 

The inspectors' duties are to couple the engine to 
the train and air hose ; after the system is charged he 
should whistle the brake on from the first car; on 
passenger trains he should start at the engine and in- 
spect each brake. At the rear end of the train he 
should whistle for release and make an inspection on 
his way back to the engine to see that all have re- 
leased properly, and report to the engineer. 

On freight trains he should see that all air hose in 
the train are coupled up; he should be at the engine 
to have the brakes put on and start at the engine, go- 
ing to the rear car, noting the condition of each brake, 
including the engine. When at the end of the train 
he should give the release signal and return to the 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 71 

engine, watching for leaks in the train pipe and noting 
the condition of the brakes after the release. 

144. Why is a terminal test necessary? 

A. To know the condition of brakes before start- 
ing, and to know the brakes can be applied from the 
engine. 

145. What do you wait for after coupling to train 
before testing the brakes? 

A. Wait until train pipe and main reservoir 
pressures are all charged up. 

146. At what pressure should brake pipe and aux- 
iliaries be charged before making terminal tests? 

A. At 70 lbs. with low speed brake and no with 
high speed brake. 

147. To charge train quickly, in what position 
should the brake valve handle be placed? 

A. Place brake valve handle in full release. 

148. How do you know when auxiliaries are fully 
charged ? 

A. When the pump stops running or slows down 
to its minimum speed. 

149. How much reduction should be made when 
testing brakes? 

A. A 25 lb. reduction is necessary to get full brak- 
ing power. 

150. Why would not a five or ten pound reduction 
be sufficient? 

A. It might not give the proper piston travel, or 



72 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

it may not be sufficient to force the pistons by the 
leakage grooves. 

151. Is it necessary to have 70 lbs. pressure to ob- 
tain full braking power? 

A. Yes, it is quite necessary. 

152. After applying brakes and black hand con- 
tinues to fall, what does it indicate? 

A. This would indicate a brake pipe leak. 

153. What is a leak in the brake pipe liable to- do 
if the pump does not maintain the pressure? 

A. It will reduce the braking power, as you can- 
not get the proper reservoir pressure, and should the 
leak be greater than the pump could supply it would 
cause an entire loss of the air and no brake. 

154. How would you test for brake pipe leaks? 
A. Wait until train pipe is charged up and make a 

5 to 7 pound reduction; place brake valve handle on 
lap. Should the black hand fall it would indicate a 
brake pipe leak. 

155. If in applying the brakes you had made a five 
pound reduction, and the brake pipe exhaust should 
suddenly close, black hand falling to about 55 pounds, 
what would it indicate, and what would you do on a 
freight train? 

A. This indicates a kicker, or one triple valve go- 
ing into emergency. On a freight train would cut it 
out after locating it. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 73 

156. How would you handle a train having a de- 
fect of this kind? 

A. As it is dangerous, cut it out to avoid further 
trouble. 

157. As a rule, how much is it necessary to re- 
duce brake pipe pressure to force pistons by leakage 
grooves ? 

A. About 5 to 7 pounds. 

158. In making stops with passenger trains, ten 
cars or less, when should the brakes be released, and 
why? 

A. Release just before coming to a stop to avoid 
shocks. 

159. With longer passenger train, over ten cars, 
when should the brakes be released, and why? 

A. After coming to a stop to avoid breaking in 
two and other serious shocks. 

160. When should the brakes be released on 
freight trains? 

A. After train has been brought to a stop. 

161. How many applications should be used to 
stop a passenger train? 

A. Two applications. 

162. How should brake valve handle be handled 
between applications ? 

A. Carried on running position. 

163. How many applications should be used to 
stop freight trains, and why? 



74 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. One. Because if more is used it is liable to re- 
sult in broken draw bars and other serious damage 
to the train. 

164. What is an application of the brake? 

A. An application of the brake is from the time 
it is applied until released. 

165. Explain why the amount of air from the 
brake pipe exhaust varies with different lengths of 
trains? 

A. With the long train we have a larger volume 
of air than with a shorter, and it takes longer for the 
air to flow through exhaust port of brake valve. 

166. If in case you fail to get the proper exhaust 
from the brake pipe, what would you do? 

A. If in motion stop at once and have train exam- 
ined. See if the train has all of its cars cut in; if all 
right, examine for a hose with a loose lining. 

167. If the air whistle should blow twice in leav- 
ing a station, where would you place the brake valve 
handle ? 

A. In service application and never in emergency. 

168. How would you make a stop for water with 
a passenger train? 

A. With two applications of the brake, the sec- 
ond as light as possible, stopping with brake ap- 
plied. 

169. With a freight train? 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 75 

A. Make one application; after stopping cut off 
the engine and proceed to the water plug. 

170. If it becomes necessary to again apply the 
brakes immediately after releasing, do you under- 
stand that there is a higher pressure in the brake pipe 
which must first be exhausted before the action of 
the brakes can be secured? Explain why. 

A. Yes. Because the air charges slowly through 
triple to auxiliary reservoir, and when we release, for 
instance, place brake valve handle in full release posi- 
tion we charge train pipe to 70 pounds and the aux- 
iliary pressure being, say, 45 pounds, should we want 
to apply brake it will be necessary to reduce brake 
pipe pressure below 45 pounds before any air will pass 
pass to the brake cylinder. 

171. Before applying brakes on a freight train 
what should you wait for to avoid shocks to the train ? 

A. Wait until slack is all run in (or bunched). 

172. Should brakes be released at a slow rate of 
speed with a freight train, and why? 

A. No. As it will result in broken draw bars and 
other serious damage. 

173. Suppose you were stopping for a signal with 
a freight train and when nearly stopped, signal should 
show clear, what would you guard against? 

A. Guard against breaking the train in two. 

174. Why is it dangerous to repeatedly apply and 



76 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

release the brakes without giving time for auxiliaries 
to recharge? 

A. This will result in a great loss in braking 
power, if not entire loss of air. 

175. In double-heading, which engine should do 
the braking? 

A. The leading engine. 

176. What would you do if you were on the sec- 
ond engine, so that the head engine could do the brak- 
ing? 

A. Cut out brake valve with old equipment. 

177. If on second engine and man on leading en- 
gine was disregarding signals and rules, what would 
you do? 

A. Cut in my brake and put it in emergency po- 
sition. 

178. Is it essential that the engineer should look 
at the gauge often that the pressures may not leak off 
without his knowledge? 

A. Yes ; very essential. 

179. What determines the length of time the 
handle should be left in release position in releasing 
brakes? 

A. The length of train and the amount of air re- 
quired to recharge the auxiliary reservoirs. 

180. What places should be picked out to re- 
charge on grades? 

A. Curves should be picked out to release at, be- 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING jj 

cause the train will bind more and reduce its motion. 

181. When recharging, how long should brake 
valve handle be left in release position? 

A. Until the brake pipe is charged, or all brakes 
released. 

182. Should engine be reversed with driver 
brakes applied, and why? 

A. No. Because it will slide the drivers and 
little or no br.aking power will result. 

183. How would you proceed in case of bursted 
hose? 

A. Place brake valve on lap position and wait 
until train stops. 

184. How can you help trainmen locate it? 

A. By moving from lap to full release for short 
intervals. 

185. When brakes go on suddenly without 
action of the engineer, what are the causes and 
what should be done? 

A. Generally a bursted hose or someone pull- 
ing conductor's valve. Place brake on lap and wait 
until train stops. 

186. Do you understand that the emergency ap- 
plication should not be used in making stops for 
water, or others, only in case of emergency? 

A. Yes. 

187. What objections are there in using the 
brake in emergency? 



78 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. It causes dirt and water scales, etc., to flow 
through the brake valve and will cause brake valve 
to move hard, if not cutting its seat. 

188. If the back-up hose is to be used, in what 
position should the brake handle be carried and how 
long left there? 

A. Should be placed on lap, and left there until 
train has come to a stop. 

HIGH SPEED BRAKE AND TRUCK BRAKE. 

189. What is the difference between the low 
speed and the high speed brake? 

A. We carry higher main reservoir and brake 
pipe pressure, and we also have the truck brake. 

190. What additional p.arts are there on the 
engine with the high speed brake also on the cars? 

A. The duplex governor, adjustable feed valve, 
the special triple valve for lead truck and the high 
speed reducing valve, and an extra auxiliary 
reservoir. 

191. What pressure is carried in the main reser- 
voir and brake pipe with the high speed brake? 

A. Main reservoir 130 pounds; in brake pipe, 
no. 

192. Explain in a general way the operation of 
the high speed reducing valve, at what pressure are 
they adjusted? 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 79 

A. The high speed reducing valve essentials 
consists of an air piston .acting in a cylinder oper- 
ated by air from the brake cylinder during applica- 
tions. On one side of this air piston is a spring 
and set screw which generally has a tension of 60 
lbs., acting directly on the piston, the air from the 
brake cylinder tends to compress this spring as it 
has direct access to it. On the opposite side of this 
spring is ,a slide valve which is connected to the 
piston, which has a triangular shaped port cut in 
it which is moved by the air piston in any appli- 
cation, resulting in a brake cylinder pressure of 60 
lbs. or over, causing the spring to compress. This 
little valve. moves on a face and is held there by the 
air pressure and a spring; this face has a 
little port about the length of the triangular 
port in the slide valve and about ^g-inch in 
width. During an ordinary service application 
of the brake, should 60 or more pounds of 
air accumulate in the brake cylinder, the piston 
will compress the spring and cause the slide valve 
to move down slightly until the lower or wider 
part of the triangular port lets the air out to the 
atmosphere via the release port, and does so 
quickly. Now in the emergency application of the 
brake, a sudden pressure is thrown into the brake 
cylinder, and so quickly that it runs the brake 
cylinder pressure up to 85 or 88 lbs., and acts so 



80 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

suddenly that it forces the piston down its full 
length, pulling the smaller end of the triangular 
port to register with the release port in the valve 
face, making the flow much less and gradual until 
it is brought to 60 or a little below. 

The object of the high speed reducing valve is to 
increase the friction between the brake shoe and wheel 
which is reduced during high speeds, and must be 
reduced with the speed of the train, since the ad- 
hesion of the wheel to the rail is about the same at 
all speeds. 

193. What is the function of the high speed re- 
ducing valve ? 

A. To automatically control the brake cylinder 
pressure according to application made. 

194. How much pressure develops in the brake 
cylinder with high speed brake with standard 
piston travel, emergency application? 

A. From 85 to 88 pounds. 

195. If a car is not equipped with a high speed 
reducing valve what can be done so this car can 
be used in a high speed train. 

A. Take out the oil plug in the brake cylinder 
and put in a safety valve. 

196. If a train with ,a high speed brake should 
pick up a car not equipped with same, what would 
engineman do? 

A. Cut down to low speed. (See 195.) 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 8l 

197. How does the engineman change from 
high to low speed brake? 

A. By turning the feed valve to the left until it 
strikes the stop provided for this purpose and re- 
duce the brake pipe pressure below the feed valve 
adjustment. 

198. What are the advantages with the high 
speed brake? 

A. Quicker stops and better control of the train 
in every respect. 

199. How many full service applications can be 
made without recharging and have left as much 
pressure as is used with the low speed brake? 

A. Two applications. 

200. How many triple valves used on an engine 
with the truck brake and how many auxiliary 
reservoirs? 

A. One special triple valve and two auxiliary 
reservoirs. 

201. How do you cut out a truck brake? 

A. By a cut-out cock attached to pipe leading 
from triple valve to the brake cylinder. 

E. T. EQUIPMENT (5). 

202. What parts do the E. T. Equipment do 
away with on engine and tender? 

A. All triple valves, auxiliary reservoirs, double 
check valves, and high speed reducing valves. 



82 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

203. What takes the place of these parts? 
A. The distributing valve. 

204. When charged, where is the pressure 
stored on the engine? 

A. In the main reservoir, equalizing reservoir 
and pressure chamber of the distributing valve. 

205. What is the duty of the distributing valve? 
A. To apply and release the brake on engine 

and tender; also to maintain a brake cylinder press- 
ure of 45 pounds against brake cylinder leakage. 

206. What is the use of the safety valve con- 
nected with the distributing valve and what press- 
ure is it adjusted at? 

A. To not allow more than 53 pounds of air in 
the brake cylinder, and adjusted at 53 pounds. 

207. How many pistons are there in the dis- 
distributing valve? Name them. 

A. Two. The application and the equalizing 
pistons. 

208. How many chambers has the distributing 
valve reservoir? Name them. 

A. Two. Application and the pressure cham- 
bers. 

209. How many brake valves with the E. T. 
Equipment? Name them. 

A. Two. The automatic and straight air valves. 

210. How is the brake pipe pressure regulated? 
A. By the feed valve. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 83 

211. Name positions of both brake valves. 

A. The automatic, full release, running, holding, 
lap, service, and emergency; straight air valve, Xo. 
5 equipment ; full release, running, lap and service ; 
Xo. 6, full release, running, lap, quick service and 
slow service. 

212. What is the use of the holding position? 

A. To hold the engine and tender brake on and 
release the train brakes and to hold up the slack. 

213. In what position must both brake valve 
handles be carried when not in use? 

A. In running position. 

214. What position does automatic brake valve 
have to be in to release engine and tender brake? 

A. In running position. 

215. How can distributing valve be cut out, also 
brake cylinders? 

A. By a cut-out cock leading to the driver brake 
cylinders, and another cut-out cock leading to the 
tender brake cylinders. The distributing valve may 
be cut out by a cut-out cock between distributing 
valve and main reservoir. 

216. What chamber does air have to be put in, to 
apply brake on engine and tender? 

A. Air must be put in the application chamber. 

217. Where does this air come from with service 
application and with emergency application? 



84 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. In a service application air comes from the 
main reservoir. With the emergency application 
from the main reservoir and equalizing reservoirs. 

218. How does this admit air to the brake cylin- 
ders? 

A. In service application we make a reduction 
in train pipe and also the pipe leading to the equaliz- 
ing piston of the distributing valve, which moves the 
equalizing parts to service position, changing applica- 
tion chamber and then this pressure moves the appli- 
cation piston which then moves the application valve, 
allowing air to flow to the brake cylinders. 

219. Where does the air come from that enters 
the brake cylinders? 

A. Main reservoir. 

220. When should the independent brake valve be 
used? 

A. When the engine is running light; also when 
we want to release the engine and tender brake and 
hold train brakes on; when on the road or heavy 
grades, to relieve tires of excessive heat. 

221. What pressure do we get in the brake cylin- 
ders on engine and tender brakes applied with inde- 
pendent brake valve? 

A. 45 pounds. 

222. What regulates the pressure to be used with 
the independent brake valve, and what should it be? 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 85 

A. Reducing valve, which reduces air from main 
reservoir to the brake cylinder; it should be 45 
pounds. 

223. What is the difference between the cut-out 
cock in this equipment and old equipment in the brake 
pipe under the brake valve? 

A. With the old equipments we have an ordinary 
plug cock, with this equipment we have a double cut- 
out cock which cuts out the train pipe and at the same 
time cuts in the double-heading pipe. When the 
brake valve is cut out, it gives the engineer on the 
second engine control of the brake on his engine only. 
The double-heading pipe acts as a distributing valve 
release pipe when double heading. 

224. With E. T. Equipment can you release train 
brakes and hold engine and tender brakes on? How? 

A. Yes. By placing automatic brake valve handle 
in full release and then returning it to holding posi- 
tion of the brake valve. 

225. Can you release engine and tender brake and 
hold on train brakes? How? 

A. Yes. By releasing with the independent valve, 
which allows the air to flow out of application cham- 
ber. 

226. What should be done on rear engine when 
double heading with E. T. Equipment? 

A. Cut out the brake valve and put brake valve 
handle on lap position. 



86 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

22J. If you were on second locomotive and driv- 
ing wheels were skidding, what would you do ? 

A. I should place independent brake valve in re- 
lease position. 

228. Would that interfere with the train brakes? 
A. No. 

229. Can you re-apply engine and tender brakes, 
and how? 

A. Yes. By placing independent brake valve on 
service position, and returning it to running position. 

230. In what position must the independent valve 
then be placed so brakes can be released with auto- 
matic brake valve on the head locomotive? 

A. It should be placed on running position. 

231. What regulates signal line pressure with 
this equipment? 

A. The same reducing valve that controls the air 
supplied to independent brake valve. 

2^2. Can brakes be released at a slow rate of 
speed with this equipment in freight service, and 
how? 

A. Yes. By placing the automatic brake valve in 
full release and returning it to holding position. 

233. What is the object of cut-out cock in dis- 
charge pipe from main reservoir? 

A. Its purpose is to hold the main reservoir air 
when we wish to work on the various parts of the 
equipment; if it were not for this cut-out cock it 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 87 

would be necessary to drain all air off and stop the 
pump. 

234. How do we change from low-speed brake to 
high-speed with the E. T. Equipment? 

A. By turning the feed valve regulating handle 
to high-speed position. 

235. What would cause engine and tender brake 
to release after making a service application and re- 
turning brake valve to lap position, and what would 
you examine? 

A. Leaks in application chamber or application 
cylinder; examine all piping leading to application 
chamber. 

236. What should the piston travel be with the E. 
T. Equipment? 

A. Piston travel should be sufficient to give a 
good brake shoe clearance. 

2$j. Does piston travel have anything to do with 
pressure developed in the brake cylinders and brake 
holding, providing pistons do not bottom in cylinder, 
and does brake cylinder leakage affect the holding of 
the brake, and why? 

A. No, as the reducing valve takes care of the 
brake cylinder pressure, and the distributing valve 
takes care of all brake cylinder leakage by moving 
the application piston from lap to application position 
accordingly as the reductions in pressure on each side 
of the application piston are made. 



88 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

238. What should you guard against in descend- 
ing grades with the E. T. Equipment? 

A. Heating of tires and skidding of wheels. 

239. Do you understand that no excuse will be 
accepted for over-heating of tires and skidding of 
wheels with the E. T. Equipment? 

A. Yes. 

Why should the brake cylinder piston travel be as 
short as possible? 

A. It is a waste of air and also causes slack to run 
into the engine when releasing brakes. 

NO. 6 E. T. EQUIPMENT. 

154. What are the parts composing the dead en- 
gine fixtures? 

A. A cut-out cock, combined strainer and check 
valve with a choke fitting and piped from the train 
pipe to the main reservoir pipe. 

155. What is the purpose of the "Dead Engine" 
feature of the E. T. Equipment? 

A. To allow an engine without air to be operated 
by an engine that has air, or to get breaking power on 
a dead engine. 

156 How is this done? 

A. In order to get an application of the brake with 
a dead engine and this equipment it is necessary to 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 89 

have air in the main reservoir. By cutting in the com- 
bined strainer and check valve, air will flow from the 
brake pipe to the main reservoir of the dead engine. 

157. When is this apparatus used? 

A. When the air pump is out of commission. 

158. Should the cut-out cock always be closed ex- 
cept when the compressor is inoperative? 

A. It should. 

159. Describe the flow of air through the com- 
bined strainer and check valve. 

A. When the cut-out cock is opened, the air from 
the train pipe flows through the strainer, and after 
passing this it lifts a small check valve which is held 
on its seat by a spring, then through the small choke 
fitting to the main reservoir. 

164. When the dead-engine feature is used, in 
what position should the automatic and independent 
brake valve handles be carried? 

A. In running position. 

165. What should be the position of the double 
heading cock? 

A. It should be cut out. 

BROKEN PIPES. 

265. What .would be the result if the brake pipe 
branch to the distributing valve broke ofif? 

A. It would set the brakes on engine and train. 



90 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

266. What should be done if this happens on the 
road? 

A. Plug the pipe on the end next to the train pipe 
and use the independent brake valve for the locomo- 
tive braking. 

267. Would it be possible to use the locomotive 
brake in this case? 

A. Yes, using the independent brake valve for this 
purpose. 

268. What would be the result if any of the pipe 
connections between the distributing valve and the 
brake cylinders broke off? 

A. It would cause a large loss of air from the 
main reservoir and may release other brakes on the 
engine and tender. 

269. What should be done in a case of this kind? 
A. I would cut out the cylinders if there was a 

cock to cut them out, if not, I would plug the broken 
pipe. Should it be near the distributing valve I would 
cut out the distributing valve supply pipe. 

270. What would be the effect if the supply pipe 
to the distributing valve broke off? 

A. It would cause the brakes to set, all the main 
reservoir pressure would escape, and the engine would 
be without any brake. 

271. What should be done? 

A. I would try to replace the pipe by using a piece 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 91 

of brake cylinder pipe. If I could not do this I 
would close the cut-out cock or plug the pipe. 

272. What would be the effect if the application 
cylinder pipe to the distributing valve broke off ? 

A. I could not get an application of the engine 
brake. 

273. What should be done? 

A. I would plug up the pipe next to the distribut- 
ing valve and use the automatic brake valve to handle 
the engine with. 

274. With this opening plugged and the brake 
automatically applied, can it be released with the inde- 
pendent brake valve? 

xA. No, the automatic brake valve will have to be 
oh running position to release the engine brake, 

282. With the lower pipe to the excess pressure 
head plugged, or with both pipes plugged, what would 
control the compressor? 

A. The maximum head will control the pressure. 

283. What should be done in the event of the 
pipe connection to the maximum pressure head 
breaking off? 

A. I would plug the pipe. 

284. What would control the compressor? 
A. The excess head. 

285. In such a case, would the excess pressure 
head control the compressor at all times? 



92 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. In service, lap and emergency positions it does 
not control the main reservoir pressure. 

286. What would happen if the handle were left 
in lap, service or emergency positions or it became 
necessary to close the main reservoir cut-out cock for 
any length of time? 

A. It would run the main reservoir pressure up to 
nearly boiler pressure. 

287. What precaution should be taken with the 
governor out of commission in this way? 

A. The pump should be shut off. 

288. What should be done if the equalizing reser- 
voir pipe breaks off? 

A. Do the same as for the old 92 model valve, 
namely, plug the broken pipe, also the train pipe ex- 
haust and use the emergency position carefully to 
obtain a service application. 

289. Why should extreme care be used when 
operating the brake valve in this manner? 

A. To avoid emergency applications or quick 
action and the forward brakes on the train releasing 
when going back to lap. 

290. What should be done if the pipe between the 
feed valve and automatic brake valve got broken? 

A. Screw back on the feed valve. This will stop 
any flow of air out at that end of the broken pipe, 
next plug the end near the automatic brake valve, use 
full release position to charge the train pipe and carry 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 93 

it there while running. Of course you will have no 
excess pressure, but you will have a brake, never- 
theless. 



CHAPTER II. 

Combustion and Firing. 

1. What is the cause of all motion? 

A. Heat is the cause of all motion. To explain 
clearly heat in fuel applied to the steam boiler and 
converted into motion through a steam engine. Heat 
is the cause of motion in the electric plant operated 
by water. The water vapor raised from the ocean by 
the sun's rays and dropped inland as rain. The course 
of the water on its way back to the ocean is harnessed 
up through water wheels, causing motion and electric 
generation of power, and other methods beyond the 
scope of this book. 

2. What is heat unit? 

A. Heat unit represents JJJ foot pounds of work 
or a i-pound body falling Jjj feet would impart an 
equivalent to one unit of heat. The heat units con- 
tained in 1 pound of the average coal should be from 
12,000 to 13,500, hence it can be clearly seen the 
energy stored up in coal. 

3. What is heating surface? 

A. Heating surface is that portion of the boiler 



94 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

subjected to the products of combustion which trans- 
mits the heat to the water, namely, firebox sheets, 
flues and superheater elements in superheater loco- 
motives. 

4. What is the chief element of combustion in soft 
coal. 

A. Carbon. 

5. What per cent, of Bituminous coal is carbon? 
A. Eighty-five per cent, is considered a very good 

average. 

6. What must be the temperature of the fire to' 
burn the gas? 

A. From 1800 to 2000 degrees F. 

7. Explain the principle compositions of Bitumi- 
nus coal. 

A. Carbon, oxygen, sulphur and ash and the prin- 
cipal other constituents are found, but these are the 
principals. 

8. Does the fire burn more briskly in cold weather 
than warm? 

A. Yes, remarkably so in very cold weather. 

10. How is the evaporation power or the quantity 
of heat in coal measured? 

A. By the number of heat units contained in it. 
If all the heat in coal applied to a locomotive could be 
converted into work, the result would reduce the con- 
sumption of fuel over 60 per cent. 

11. Why is heavy firing wasteful? 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 95 

A. Heavy firing tends to reduce the temperature 
of the firebox, which also makes dense, black smoke, 
owing to the inability to get the proper amount of air 
in to completely burn the smoke. The larger portion 
of the smoke passes off through the stack and is 
wasted. 

12. How many cubic feet of air is necessary to 
burn 1 pound of coal completely? 

A. About 247 1-2 cubic feet are necessary to 
give a complete combustion ; that is, to burn the 
coal to carbon dioxide. 

13. How much of the energy of fuel is consumed 
in combustion and explain? 

A. In perfect combustion we can realize about 
13,000 to 15,000 heat units per pound of coal, the 
same being burned to carbon dioxide, but, however, 
suppose we cannot get the proper amount of air and 
oxygen to combine with the fuel we get carbon mo- 
noxide, giving 4,500 heat units per pound of coal. 

14. How much air is necessary to burn one scoop- 
full of coal? 

A. There are about 18 pounds of coal to the scoop. 
Using a No. 2, therefore, it would require 5,400 cubic 
feet of air to be passed into the fire box to burn one 
completely, basing the amount of air to burn one 
pound of coal at 300 cubic feet or 24 pounds. 

15. When is there also a great waste of fuel other 
than incomplete combustion? 



g6 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. The coal or carbon deposited into the ash pan 
represents a loss from 20 to 30 per cent, in an un- 
burned state. Sparks thrown from the stack repre- 
sents from 2 to 10 per cent, unburned carbon. 

16. What per cent of oxygen is contained in air? 
A. One-fifth of the volume of air is oxygen. 

17. Does the flame from the fire enter the tube? 
A. Not more than 5 or 6 inches from the firebox 

end. 

18. Why does a front end when opened, for in- 
stance when the netting is plugged, catch afire some- 
times when the door is opened? 

A. At the time the front end is opened there is a 
compound known as carbonic oxide which takes fife 
when it is exposed to the air. 

19. Mention some important features relative to 
combustion in locomotive boilers. 

A. It is claimed that one pound of steam dis- 
charged from the exhaust nozzle will displace 2 1-2 
pounds of smoke box gases. The amount of steam dis- 
charged from a cylinder is equal to about .49 or 1-2 
of a pound for each exhaust; of course, there will be 
four exhausts for each revolution of the driving 
wheels, and the engine cncerned will be made up of 
cylinders 20 x 30, and worked at about 25 per cent, 
cut oflf. Therefore, the amount of air which will be 
drawn through the fire of normal thickness and free 
from clinker would be about 5 pounds. The amount of 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 97 

oxygen would be equal to 1 pound. Since it requires 
about 18 to 20 pounds of air to burn 1 pound of coal 
it will show why heavy firing is a detriment to fuel 
economy. 

20. What is the draft pressure when the engine is 
running and how measured? 

A. The draft pressure is from 2 to 6 inches in 
water when the engine is running, depending on the 
position of the lever. Draught is measured by a U- 
shaped tube connected to the smoke box and opened 
at one end, the partial vacuum pulls the water up and 
is placed in front of a rule. 

21. What pressure is indicated by the steam 
gauge? What is meant by atmospheric pressure? 

A. The pressure per square inch on each square 
inch inside of the boiler. Atmospheric pressure is 
that as registered by the barometer. At sea level it is 
14.7 pounds. 

22. What is the source of power in a steam loco- 
motive? 

A. Heat applied to water, producing steam. 

23. About what quantity of water should be evap- 
orated in a locomotive boiler to the pound of coal? 

A. From 5 to 9 pounds of water per pound of 
coal. 

24. What is steam and how is it generated? 

A. An elastic gasous vapor generated by the ap- 
plication of heat to water, is invisible under pressure. 



g 8 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

25. At what temperature does water boil? 
A. At sea level 212 degrees F. 

26. Is air necessary for combustion? 
A. Yes. 

27. Why is it necessary to provide for combus- 
tion a supply of air through the fuel in the furnace? 

A. We must have oxygen to make combustion. 
One-fifth of the air about is oxygen. 

28. How can you prove that it is necessary to 
supply air to the firebox for combustion? 

A. When the fire gets clinkered the rate of com- 
bustion is less. When the netting gets plugged there 
is a suspension of the rate of combustion. 

29. What is the effect upon combustion if too little 
air is supplied through the fire? If too much air is 
supplied ? 

A. The rate of combustion is less and poor steam- 
ing engine results. Holes in the fire and variation of 
steam pressure's. 

30. What effect on combustion has the closing and 
opening of dampers ? 

A. Reduces the rate of combustion when closed; 
increased when open. 

31. How is draft created through the fire? 

A. By the exhaust steam passing through the 
stack. 

32. In what condition, therefore, should the fire 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 99 

be, in order that the best results may be obtained from 
the combustion of coal? 

A. Clean and free from clinkers, ashes, etc. 

33. What effect is produced by opening the fire 
door when the engine is being worked? 

A. Reduced temperature in the firebox, leaky 
flues are the results. 

34. What effect has the fire upon a scoopful of 
coal when it is placed in the firebox? 

A. Distills the gases from the coal, also heats it 
up to its ignition point. 

35. In what condition should the fire be to con- 
sume these gases ? 

A. A good bright fire. 

36. How can the fire be maintained in this con- 
dition ? 

A. By careful firing and the proper working of 
the engine and proper feeding of the boiler. 

37. What is black smoke? Is it combustible? 
A. Hydrocarbon. It is combustible. 

38. Can the firing be done more intelligently if 
the water level is observed closely? 

A. Yes; the injector feed can be regulated to ab- 
sorb the heat, otherwise at times it may be wasted by 
the engine blowing off. 

39. What advantage is it to the fireman to know 
the grades of the road and the location of the stations ? 

A. He can regulate his fire and give attention to 



loo PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

the abatement of black smoke and maintain a better 
steam pressure. 

40. How should the fire and water be managed in 
starting from a terminal or other station? 

A. After the reverse lever is hooked up the firebox 
door should be opened and the fire worked as is 
necessary, using the hook or shovel for the purpose. 
The injector should be put an after the fire has been 
hooked over and the steam pressure raised to its 
working point. 

1. What causes the drumming noise often heard 
when an engine is idle? How can the noise be 
stopped? 

A. The explosion of carbon and oxygen, caused 

by holes in the fire, or a thin fire; open the firebox 
door a little; put the blower on slightly. 

2. Does the condition of the grates influence 
free steaming? 

A. Yes. 

3. What effect do deflector-plate and smoke-box 
appliances exert upon the steaming of an engine? 

A. They offer resistance to the flow of the gases. 
The deflector-plate serves as a means of cleaning 
the front end. 

4. What effect on coal consumption has the 
practice of smokeless firing? 

A. It reduces the fuel consumption. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING ioi 

5. What makes regulating of air admission to 
the fire important? 

A. We must have oxygen; about 1-5 of the air 
is oxygen. 

6. What effect upon the boiler has steady 
firing? 

A. Keeps a constant temperature; prolongs its 
life; no flue failures. 

7. What is the origin of all mechanical power? 
A. Heat. 

8. What is a fair per cent, average of carbon 
found in bituminous coal? About how many heat 
units result from one pound of good bituminous 
coal being burned under the most favorable circum- 
stances? 

A. From 65 to 85 per cent. From 11,000 to 
15,000 heat units. 

9. What are the principal things that chemistry 
teaches in connection with combustion? What 
elements perform the principal functions in a burn- 
ing fire? 

A. That it is a chemical action. In coal, car- 
bon, oxygen and hydrogen. 

10. Is there any form of combustion besides 
burning? 

A. There is — oxidization. 

11. What do you know about oxygen? Is the 
presence of oxygen essential to life? 



102 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. Oxygen is about 1-5 of the air; 2 atoms of 
this gas combined with carbon gives us carbon- 
dioxide and 14,500 heat units per pound. It is very 
essential. 

12. What is the principal element in all fuels? 
A. Carbon. 

13. What weight of air forms the atmosphere? 
What gases compose the atmosphere? 

A. At sea level it is 14.7. Nitrogen, oxygen, 
hydrogen, argon and pure air contains about .04% 
carbon dioxide. 

14. What heat units are produced when one 
pound of hydrogen gas combines with its full 
share of oxygen? When one pound of solid carbon 
combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide how 
many heat units result? When one pound of solid 
carbon receives only sufficient oxygen to create car- 
bon monoxide how many heat units result? What 
makes a conspicuous difference between carbon 
monoxide and carbon dioxide? 

A. 62,032 — 14,500 — 4,500; the amount of oxy- 
gen supplied to the fire. 

15. How many pounds of coal per mile does the 
engine you fire burn when hauling an ordinary 
train? How much coal must at that rate be burned 
per hour on each foot of grate area? 

A. Pacific types, 22x28 cylinders, 130 to 139. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 



103 



Pacific, 54 square feet, 74 pounds per hour per 
square foot. 

16. Tell something about the relative efficiency 
of combustion to carbon monoxide and combustion 
to carbon dioxide for steam making. 

A. Carbon monoxide has 4,500 British Thermal 
Heat units. Carbon dioxide has 14,500. 

17. What are common sources of waste in the 
operation of a locomotive? Who is in the best 
position to stop wasteful practices? 

A. Blowing off of safety valves. Pumping the 
engine too full of water. No co-operation between 
engineer and fireman. Pounding the engine across 
the flats or down hill. The engine crew. 



CHAPTER III. 

Locomotive Draft Appliances. 

41. How is the diameter of stacks determined? 

A. Some roads have a standard size of 15 7/8 for 
all sizes of cylinders 18 inches and over. Other roads 
use the formula of 6/7 of the cylinder diameter on a 
tapered stack. This would apply to the larger end. Ap- 
ply this formula to an 18 inch to 20 inch cylinder. Ex- 
ample 6/7x20= H^ =17 1-7 or a 17 inch stack for 
an 18 inch cylinder = fxi8 = ^ 153/7 or 15 1/2 
stack. 



104 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

42. What should be the objective point in the 
drafting of a locomotive? 

A. To have the engine steam freely without chok- 
ing the cylinders. What should be the objective point 
in regard to the flow of gases through the front end? 

43. To keep the resistance to their passage down 
to a minimum. What is the chief resistor? 

A. The baffel plate and netting. 

44. When smoke comes out on the side of the 
stack what is the cause? 

A. The petticoat pipe does not line up with the 
stack. 

45. With the M. M. front end, what should the 
baffel plate opening be? 

A. With 19 inch to 22 inch cylinders the plate 
should stand about 12 inch to 13 inch opening, and its 
angle relative to that of the deck should be from 105 
to no degrees. Experience shows that this arrange- 
ment cleans the front end best, and is a mutual point 
between excessive gas resistance and front end filling 
due to the excessive height. 

46. What can be said in favor of bridged tips us- 
ing a single exhaust nozzle? 

A. By using a bridge it is sometimes possible to 
get two> or three inches more area of the nozzle. Ex- 
perience has shown this and the steaming and run- 
ning of the engine increased. 

47. Using the M. M. front end and extension ad- 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 105 

justable stack, what is a desired height for the location 
of the extension stack or petticoat pipe? 

A. From 7 1/2 inches to 8 inches above the tip set 
securely and centrally located. 

48. How would you tell the area of a tip before 
bridged and after? 

A. Multiply the diameter of the tip by itself and 
this result by .7854, the result will be the area in 
square inches. Generally a bridge is square iron from 
3/8 to 1/2 inches ; for example, 5 inch tip 5x5 = 25X 
.7854 = 19.63 square inches from the sum; suppos- 
ing we are using ]/ 2 inch bridge, 5 inch tip, rect- 
angle is the product of length by width, therefore 
1/2x5 = 2 1/2 or 2.5 ; subtracting this from 19.63 we 
have 17.13 square inches after compensating the area 
taken out for the bridge. 

It is a good plan to know just what the areas of the 
tips are before and after bridging it being the objec- 
tive, not to change the number of square inches in the 
original tip before changing. The following are some 
of the areas in square inches for the various sizes of 
nozzles: 4 1-4 inches area 14.186 sq. ins., 4 3-8 inches 
area 15.033 sq. ins., 4 1-2 inches area 15.904 sq. in., 
4 5-8 inches area 16.8 sq. ins., 4 3-4 inches area 17.721 
sq. ins., 4 7-8 inches area 18.665 sq. ins., 5 inch area 
x 9-635 sq. ins., 5 1-8 inches area 20.629 sq. ins., 5 1-4 
inches area 21.648 sq. ins., 5 3-8 inches area 22.691 
sq. ins., 5 1-2 inches area 23.758 sq. ins., 5 5-8 inches 



106 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

area 24.85 sq. ins., 5 3-4 inches area 25.967 sq. ins., 
5 7-8 inches area 27.109 sq. ins., 6 inch area 28.274 
sq. ins. 

49. When the diaphram plate is set at 13 inches 
how is it the fire does not burn mostly under the door ? 

A. Setting the petticoat pipe at 7 1-2 inches or 8 
inches over comes the strong draft through the upper 
flues. 

50. Name some essentials in the drafting of an 
engine. 

A. The importance of keeping the resistance due 
to draft appliances down to the least possible amount. 

There are a few things that should be borne in mind. 
In order to have a perfect draft the engine should 
have an opening and stack diameter equal to the com- 
bined area of the flues ; of course this cannot be ac- 
complished on a locomotive. The inside area of a 
single 2 inch flue at the end is 2 3-4 square inches; 
very nearly take an 18x24 inch engine with 256 flues 
the combined area would be equal to 704 square 
inches ; with this type of an engine 407 square inches 
is about the maximum that can be run with good re- 
sults so far as cleaning the front end properly is con- 
cerned. In "order to show the great benefits derived 
by running the diaphram as high as possible, take for 
instance a small passenger .engine 18x24 cylinders, 60 
inch boiler at the first ring and baffel plate 10 to 12 
inches from the bottom of the smoke arch at the cen- 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 107 

ter of the plate is the best that practice will allow. 
Let us assume that the engine has run some time at 
10 inches, the total square inches at the point is 307.9, 
now if the engine will run the plate at 11 inches and 
accomplish the same results you have gained in draft 
area the sum of 47 square inches, and a resultant re- 
duction of resistance to the passage of the products 
• of combustion. It might be said that the baffel plate 
in this position may cause the fire to burn on the back 
section greater, and a more severe draft through the 
top flues. This can be easily overcome with another 
advantage, the lowering of the petticoat pipe to a po- 
sition of not less than 7 1/2 inches from the tip will 
equalize the draft and bring about much better con- 
ditions. 

Practice has shown that the longer the stack the 
more smoke box gases will be displaced if the stack 
is filled by the exhaust steam at the lowest possible 
point. The reason advanced for this to say the greater 
length the steam fills the stack the more partial vacu- 
um will be formed. Of course the friction of the 
gases nearer the top of the stack will be greater than 
it would be had the steam not filled the stack half way 
up, but experience shows that to fill at the bottom 
makes the engine steam better. 

These rules are applied to the extension stack ap- 
paratus only. There are several schemes which are 
resorted to in order to obtain the greatest area open- 



108 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

ing under the diaphram plate; for instance, take the 
engine stated being at 10 inches from the bottom of 
the arch to center of the baffel plate; now if we can 
raise this to n inches we have gained 47 1-2 square 
inches, while at this position the engine may not clean 
the front end, the application of two wings projecting 
below the baffel plate 3 inches below and 3 inches wide 
on each side, the total derived by raising the plate is 
47 1-2 inches, and the wings use up 3x3, which is 9 
inches on each side or 18 inches in all ; by doing this 
we get 29 square inches more than at the original posi- 
tion. Practice shows this arrangement to be very 
good for two reasons. The wings make the engine 
draw a little lighter on the flues all over the tube sheet, 
and lighter still on the sides, since an engine tends to 
burn the fire more at the sides it is a means of regu- 
lating this. 

Another reason in favor of this scheme is the 
throwing the sparks diagonally helps to break them 
up into smaller elements and pass them through the 
netting without plugging. The petticoat pipe, located 
at a point 71-2 inches over the tip will assure clean- 
ing the top of the scabing or deck. 

No pains should be spared in locating the defects 
in the draft appliances. A convenient means for the 
locating of leaky steam pipes or exhaust bases, which 
has been used quite successfully, consists of blocking 
the nozzle on top with an oak board and leather 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 109 

gasket, applying the gasket to the nozzle the board 
on top of this, and then using a small jack make the 
joint tight; it is often convenient to place a small 
piece of 2x4 across the petticoat pipe to jack against. 
After making the tip tight by this means close the 
throttle valve, disconnect one cylinder cock and at- 
tach a hose and place the reverse lever in the corner 
so the valve will open the steam port. For instance, 
suppose the engine is set on top quarter, placing the 
lever in the forward corner will open the front steam 
port to the exhaust port. Placing the hose on the 
back cylinder cock connection water pressure can be 
applied and will fill up the steam passages, pipes and 
pass over the top of the valve, down through the ex- 
haust cavity and up to the top of the exhaust base 
through the hole on top of valve. After the pressure 
has been applied, open the throttle valve, which will 
let out any accumulation of air that may be contained 
in the pipes or passages, but be sure and close securely 
again. It will be necessary to see that the wheels are 
securely blocked to prevent the engine moving under 
the water pressure. This method is more economical 
on water and can be prepared in shorter time than to 
fill the entire boiler; it is also advantageous when the 
engine is wanted at short notice, as it does not reduce 
the temperature of the water in the boiler, therefore 
aids the quick firing up again. Other methods which 
are used to determine any leakage of the steam pipes 



HO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

is as follows : Apply about 60 pounds of steam to the 
cylinder cock in the same manner in which the water 
was applied for some time, then turning the steam 
off apply the water again, this will show up expan- 
sion or contraction, and the reaction on the steam 
pipes can be noted accurately. After the steam pipes 
are ground in it is advisable to apply about 30 to 60 
lbs. of steam in this way in order to have the pipes 
expand, and while in this state to allow a further 
tightening of the flange bolts. On single exhaust 
bases it is a good plan to block down the exhaust 
passages at the flange, or in other words use a blind 
gasket in conjunction with a template of the base; 
this will give chance to get a wrench on the nuts in- 
stead of using a set and hammer for the purpose. 

51. How are leaky steam joints caused? 

A. By unequal expansion and contraction; for in- 
stance, take the number of times the steam is entirely 
off, and number of times the engine is fired up; in the 
best cases it is at least eight times from the time the 
engine comes from the shop until it is returned for 
general repairs. A great many times steam pipes 
are not tested at that when in the shop. The amount 
a steam pipe will expand can be told by multiplying 
its length by the co-efficient of expansion. Per foot, 
for example, co-efficient of expansion is equal to 
.001144, that is the metal per lineal foot will expand 
.001144 eleven hundred and forty-four millionths of 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING ill 

an inch for each lineal foot between temperatures of 
32 F. and 212 F, so some idea can be had of the 
action on these pipes from this cause. 

The writer had an experience with leaky steam 
pipes as follows : An engine about to be turned out 
from the shop was tested before it was set on its 
driving wheels and found to be tight ; after the test 
it was raised up by a crane and set on its drivers the 
following day, went into service and caused a delay 
to the train on account of low steam. The engine 
was taken back into the shop and the forward flange 
on the flue sheet found to be leaking badly. Notwith- 
standing the fact that it was thoroughly tested with 
hot water before going on the crane, the only reason 
that could be advanced for this was since the engine 
was jacked up at the ends of the frame about 34 feet 
distant from each other the deflection or the moment 
of initia was enough to cause a slight deflection in the 
center of the boiler, and since the saddle was rigid 
on the forward beam of the dry pipe was allowed to 
move slightly and caused a new seat and leaky joint 
resulted. The absence of the pedestal braces on the 
bottom of the driving box jaws increased the moment 
as it was inecessary to take them off in order to have 
the engine come down on the driving boxes. 



112 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

CHAPTER IV. 
Locomotive Boilers and Appurtenances. 

92. What are the principal parts of a locomotive 
boiler? 

A. Fire box, tubes, barrel, smoke box and dome. 

93. What steam pressures are engines that you 
are familiar with allowed to carry? Does that denote 
total pressure or pressure per square inch? 

A. 150, 160, 180, 190, 200 and 210 pounds per 
square inch pressure per square inch. 

94. Name the sheets in the fire box. 

A. Tube, side, crown, door sheets. Other sheets 
are outside throat back and roof sheets. 

95. How is the strength of iron and steel affected 
by being heated to red heat? 

A. Its strength is reduced. 

96. Since heat has this effect upon steel, how is it 
that the fire box and sheets which are quite thin, and 
are subjected to a high temperature, and the steam 
pressure 200 pounds pressure per square inch can bear 
such pressure without being either torn or deformed? 

A. The water conducts the heat through the sheets 
keeping them at the same temperature nearly as that 
of the water. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 113 

97. What are crown-sheet stays and what duty do 
they perform? What are flues and what are their 
use? 

A. Radial stays are generally used ; they perform 
the same duty as the stay bolt staying the crown sheet. 
Flues are for heating surface. The heat of the pro- 
ducts of combustion is absorbed by the water sur- 
rounding them. 

98. How are the surfaces of the boiler exposed to 
the heat from the fire prevented from becoming over- 
heated ? 

A. They are covered with water. 

99. How can you tell the depth of water on the 
crown sheet? 

A. The top or highest point in the crown sheet 
should be three inches below the lowest reading of the 
water glass. 

100. What is an engineman's principal duty in re- 
gard to the care of the boiler? 

A. He should be careful in pumping and use the 
blow off cock before starting out on the trip in bad 
water districts. To see that the boiler carries the 
proper steam pressure and that the safety valves are 
in good working order. Also assist the fireman in 
keeping an even pressure by co-operating with him. 

101. What means have you of ascertaining the 
steam pressure in the boiler? 

A. By a steam gauge. 



II 4 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

102. What effect does extreme variation in steam 
pressure have on the boiler? 

A. Broken staybolts, cracked sheets, leaky flues 
and mud rings. 

103. Should the water glass be relied upon en- 
tirely to show the correct water level in a boiler? 

A. It should not always. 

104. In the design of a locomotive boiler what is 
desired in maintaining a highly efficient shell? 

A. By reducing the number of boiler joints or 
seams to a minimum. 

105. Why are boiler seams or joints a detriment 
to the boiler? 

A. Because the efficiency of the joint or the rela- 
tive strength to that of the solid sheet varies from 82 
per cent, to 94 per cent, in modern locomotive boil- 
ers. 

106. What is the efficiency of a double butt strap 
joint used on modern locomotive boilers? 

A. It is about 82 per cent, to 85 per cent. 

107. How is the safe load of a boiler joint deter- 
mined? 

A. Multiply the thickness of the sheet by the ten- 
sile strength and then by 85 per cent, and divide by 5. 

Assume a ^4 sheet 56,000 pounds the tensile 
strength of the sheet thus ^4x56,000=42,000, this 
multiplied by .85 per cent. =35,700, and this divided 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 115 

by 5 the factor of safety=7i40 pounds safe load on 
the seam. 

108. What is desired in designing water legs of 
the fire box? 

A. To get a proper circulation at this point. 

109. What have tests shown on some water legs 
when the locomotive has been worked to its hardest 
or fullest capacity? 

A. It has been shown that there is almost an ab- 
sence of water at this point, owing to the rapid evap- 
oration. 

no. What can be done to remedy this? 

A. A wider water leg would assist materially. 

in. What are the dimensions of some of the 
modern Pacific type locomotives at the fire box? 

A. The inside width of the water legs are 4^2 
inches, at the mud ring 5J/2 at top on the back, 63^ 
at top on the sides and 6 inches at top and on the 
throat. 

112. How does the pressure act on the tube 
sheet? 

A. It tends to bulge or round it out. 

113. What supports the tube sheet? 

A. Tubes, throat stays and stay bolts. The 
front sheet is supported by tubes, gusset, crow-foot, 
or angle braces. 

114. How do you tell the strength of boiler 
plate? 



n6 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. Multiply the thickness by its tenstile strength 
For example : a 3-4-inch plate 60,000 pounds ten- 
stile strength would be 45,000 pounds. 

115. How would you know the tenstile strength 
of a boiler plate? 

A. The tenstile strength is plainly stamped on 
each sheet. 

116. How can you tell the thickness a boiler 
shell should have? 

A. Take the diameter of the boiler multiplied by 
the steam pressure and divide by two times the load 
on the joint. The load on the joint can be found by 
dividing the tenstile strength of the plate by 5 and 
multiplying by 85 per cent. Thus a sheet of 55,000 
tenstile strength ^m— 11,000x85% =9,350 pounds. 

Suppose the boiler has a 72-inch ring (largest 
sheet) and carries 200 pounds of steam, we have 
200x72=144,000 divided by 9,350x2=18,700, we 
have HtSg =.72, nearly which would call for a Y\ 
sheet, which is (.75) expressed in a decimal. 

117. How is the safe working pressure of a 
firebox computed? 

A. Multiply the thickness of the sheet by itself 
and then by 286,720 and divide by the steam pres- 
sure. Thus, say, a ]/ 2 sheet, we have ^X^2~/4 
or a decimal of .25 ; this multiplied by 286,720= 
71,670 and say the boiler carries 200 pounds of 
steam, we then have HU~ =358. This is the strain 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 117 

this size of sheet will carry safely; of course, the 
strain on the flat surfaces must be taken care of 
and stay bolts must be used to find the number of 
stay bolts required. The strain of a stay bolt 
should not be more than 5,500 pounds per inch of 
cross sectional area. Say the box has 10,800 square 
inches and the steam pressure is 200 and using 1- 
inch stay bolt then the total pressure is io,8oox 
200=2,160,000 and this dividend by 5,500 will give 
the number of bolts required, which is 393. The 
pitch of the bolt would be the steam pressure 
divided into 5,500 and the square root taken from 
this. Thus -Vth? =27-5 and the square root is 5.2; 
therefore, the pitch would be 5 inches. 

118. How would you tell the strength of boiler 
plate by the rivet hole? 

A. Multiply the thickness of the plate by its 
tensile strength and by the pitch of the rivet. 

119. How would you determine the relative 
efficiency of the solid plate to the plate after the 
rivet hole had been drilled? 

A. Multiply the thickness by the diameter and 
tensile strength and subtract the distance in pitch 
which was drilled away and dividing the first by 
the second will give the efficiency. For example : 
say 3 1-2 inches between centers of rivet holes, 
using a i-inch rivet, from the center of each hole 
would take in 2 1-2 inches, or the diameter of one 



Il8 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

i-inch rivet subtracted from the original distance; 
therefore taking the tenstile strength at 56,000 
pounds and a 3-4-inch sheet, we would have the 
original strength as follows : 24 x 56,ooo=42,ooox 
3=126,000; therefore 126,000 pounds would be the 
tensile strength of the sheet before drilling. After 
drilling we would have 24x56,000=2^ = 105,000. 
Then dividing greater by less we have tiiUi or 105 
=83%. 

120. What is the rule used by boiler makers 
in approximating the diameter of a rivet and its 
pitch ? 

A. Multiply the thickness of the boiler plate by 
two for the diameter of the rivet; for the pitch of 
the rivet multiply by 21-2. 

121. What rule is used in determining the pitch 
of. stay bolts in locomotive boilers? 

A. The pitch of stay bolts in locomotive boil- 
ers is 4 inches. There is, however, a rule which 
is taken as follows : multiply the diameter of the 
stay bolt by 5,500, divide it by the steam pressure 
and extract the square root of the quoient. For 
instance, a i-inch stay bolt, 200 pounds of steam 
-Vtrt 1/27.^=5 inches nearly. 

122. What pitch is given to locomotive boilers 
generally ? 

A. Four inches. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 119 

123. How would you find the pressure a crown 
sheet would stand? 

A. Assume the boiler to be new and the crown 
sheet to be ^-inch plate, multiply the length by width 
times steam pressure, and then by 12, dividing this 
product by 2000, which will give the pressure in tons 
and then by 2.66. 

124. What is the surface on the forward tube 
sheet above the tubes called? 

A. The segment to be braced. 

125. To know the number of braces required on .a 
head of this kind what is necessary? 

A. Its area must be found. 

126. Why is this necessary? 

A. Because we must know the surface sustained 
by each brace in square inches. 

127. What rule should apply for the number of 
braces required. 

A. The strain on the stays on the head of the 
locomotive boiler should not be subjected to more 
than 7,000 to 8,000 pounds to each inch in cross- 
sectional area. 

128. Is the tube sheet as strong as any other 
sheet in the boiler? 

A. No. 

129. Why is it not as strong? 

A. Because its strength is reduced by the tube 
holes. 



120 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

130. How can you tell the relative strength to 
that of the solid plate? 

A. The efficiency or relative strength of the tube 

sheet is found by taking the pitch of the tube 

holes and subtracting the diameter of one of the 

tube holes and dividing the result by pitch of the 

tube holes in inches. Thus a 2-inch tube hole and 

the pitch or distance between the tubes at the cen- 

2^ 2 

ters is 2 5-8 inches, then we have 8 2 5 =25 per 

cent, nearly. Should the tube sheet be of 55,000 
pounds tenstile strength the ligament would be 
55,ooox.25% = 13,750 pounds per square inch on a 
5-8 sheet the strength of ligament would be 8,593 
pounds. 

131. What is the allowable shearing strain on 
rivets ? 

A. Iron rivets in single shear, 38,000 pounds; 
iron rivets in double shear, 70,000 pounds; steel 
rivets in single shear, 42,000 pounds; steel rivets 
in double shear, 78,000 pounds. 

132. How should the factor of safety be ap- 
plied to a boiler which has been in service some 
time? 

A. Its factor of safety should be increased .1 for 
each year after ten years of service. For a boiler 
in service after this time it should have a factor 
of safety of 5 1-2 instead of 4 1-2, which is the 
case with a new boiler. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 121 

133. How can you prove that the pressure on 
a tube sheet tends to round it out? 

A. I have seen tube sheets rounded out when 
the tubes were in poor condition and their holding- 
power lessened by being rolled excessively and 
the headings cut off by so doing and the tube sheets 
bulged out 1-4 inch from the center point in the 
sheet. 

134. What is the space of tubes on modern 
locomotives? 

A. About 5-8 inches. 

135. What is meant by pitch of the tubes and 
stay bolts? 

A. The distance from the center of one tube or 
stay bolt to the center of the next adjacent one. 

136. What distinct improvement is the flexible 
stay bolt over the rigid stay bolt? 

A. The ability of the stay bolt to allow expan- 
sion and contraction of fire box sheets without 
breakage. 

137. What has been shown by experience with 
the flexible stay bolt? 

A. Engines have been run from shop to shop 
without any renewals. 

138. What do you infer by saying that engines 
are running from shop to shop without any re- 
newals? 

A. I mean that the engines make their assigned 



122 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

mileage, which ranges from 55,000 to 90,000 miles, 
according to the type without any breakage of stay 
bolts or renewals of the flexible bolts. 

139. What is the greatest mileage on record for 
flexible stay bolts without renewals? 

A. An Atlantic type engine on the New York 
Central made 243,000 miles without any renewals. 

140. What can you give as causes of flue 
failures? 

A. There are several causes of flue failures, 
namely, First : a variable temperature and pres- 
sure, this being caused by a poor steaming engine 
or poor firing. Second : poor management upon 
part of the engine crew. For instance : pumping 
the boiler excessively when steam is shut off. 
Third : improper care of the grates, allowing the 
forward portion to fill up with ashes and causing 
uneven temperatures in the firebox. Fourth : carry- 
ing the door open widely while the locomotive is 
shut off and using the blower too hard. Fifth : 
improper care at the ash pit. Blower used too 
strong, causing the flue sheet to contract and 
dumping the forward section of the fire, allowing 
large volumes of cold air to strike the flue sheets 
and flues causing an unequal expansion. Sixth : 
improper care of engines in the engine house, fill- 
ing the boiler clear up, running steam pressure 
down with very little fire in the firebox. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 123 

141. How can you prove that poor firing or a 
poor steaming engine will cause flue failures? 

A . We know that heat causes expansion and 
that heat and pressure go together so far as satu- 
rated steam is concerned. That is temperature 
and pressure go up and down together. We also 
know that expansion and contraction in the loco- 
motive boiler pulls or pushes the tube through the 
sheet, making it contract and to leak. 

142. Can you give further proof that a tube is 
pulled through the sheet during expansion and 
contraction? 

A. Yes. After flues have leaked severely they 
will be found loose in the tube sheet and must be 
expanded before the engine can go into service 
again. 

143. How can you prove that poor management 
on part of the engineer in supplying w r ater to the 
boiler will cause leaky flues? 

A. It has been demonstrated in practice that an 
engine running down grade with the injector on 
will cause leaky flues, due to the fact that large 
volumes of relatively cold water are being put 
into the boiler while the fire is at a lower 
temperature than when the locomotive was work- 
ing. The course of water circulation in the boiler 
and its gravity causes this cold water to pass to 
the lower tubes, resulting in an unequal expansion 



124 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

from the fact that the upper flues are hotter, 
due to the condition of the water and the lower 
flues are cooler due to the injection of so large a 
volume of water at a decreased temperature in the 
boiler. 

144. Why is it the lower flues leak more than 
the upper ones? 

A. The water is always cooler here due to the 
circulation path, causing a wider range of expan- 
sion and contraction on these particular tubes. 

145. What rule is sometimes used for the 
amount of heating surface in locomotive boilers? 

A. The following is an approximate rule : Take 
400 times the contents of one cylinder in cubic feet 
for the heating surface in square feet. For an ex- 
ample, ,a 20-inch cylinder and a 30-inch stroke, and 
the area of a 20-inch cylinder is 314.16 square 
inches, and its stroke is 30 inches. Then the con- 
tents will be 314.16x30, which is 9,424.4, add 10 
per cent, of 9,424.4 for clearance volume, we have 
10,369. Clearance is the space between the valve 
when the port is closed and the piston 'on the dead 
center, this sum divided by 1728 and multiplied 
by 400 will give the cubic feet, which would be 
equal to 6 nearly. Multiplying this by 400 would 
be equal to 2,400 square feet. This, however, is a 
little lower than that is used on a road I have in 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 125 

mind, but is due to the fact to allowing a small 
percentage of clearance volume of 10 per cent. 

146. Define direct and indirect heating surface. 
A. Direct heating surface is that portion of the 

boiler in contact with the fire. Indirect heating 
surface is that not in direct contact with the fire. 
For instance, in the first case firebox sheets, in the 
second case the tubes or flues. 

147. What is the relative value of direct and in- 
direct heating surface ? 

A. Under the rapid rate of evaporation in locomo- 
tive boilers of today, it has been shown that 1 square 
foot of fire box heating surface is equal to more than 
jYz feet of tube heating surface. This is one dis- 
tinct advantage of the Jacobs-Shubert fire box. 

148. What is the proper plan for feed water to 
enter the boiler. 

A. On modern types of locomotives an internal 
feed pipe is attached to the back head of the boiler by 
a combined flange and check velve body. The in- 
jector delivers water through this pipe which, leads 
to the forward end of the boiler and deposited at a 
point near the forward tube sheet. There is an ob- 
jection to this location advanced for the reason that 
when an engine is shut off, for instance when running 
down hill with the injector left running, large vol- 
umes of relatively cool water deposited at this point, 
and due to the gravity (weight) of the water at its 



I 2 6 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

lower temperature relative to that of the water already 
in the boiler goes directly to the lower portion of the 
boiler, then the path of circulation carries it back near 
the flue sheet, causing a wide variation in temperature 
and a prominent cause for leaky tubes. This asser- 
tion is borne out in practice, as it is a common fact 
that the lower tubes leak more frequently and are 
subject to the hardest service of all. 

149. Describe the path of circulation in a locomo- 
tive boiler. 

A. Circulation path is upward through the water 
legs on the inside, on the inner sheets, and downward 
on the outside next to the outside sheets. Circulation 
in the barrel on top toward the front flue sheet and 
on the bottom towards the fire box, near the flue sheet 
and at the ends, through the tubes upward, in back 
and down in front. 

150. What is the thickness of the average fire box 
sheets ? 

A. The fire box sheets should be made thin to 
assist in conduction of heat into the water. Side 
sheets on engines carrying 180 to 200 pounds of steam 
should have }i sheets on the side and y 2 to ^ tube 
sheets. The same being made thicker for the purpose 
of holding tubes. Crown sheets should be given the 
same thickness as side, and should be supported by % 
to 1^ radial stays, and should be spaced to allow not 
over 5500 pounds per square inch of cross sectional 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 127 

area of the bolt. This to be found by measuring the 
distance from one crown stay to the other; for in- 
stance: suppose it is 4 inches, and the area supported 
by the stay would be 4 inches one way and 4 inches 
the other, then the area sustained is 16 square inches. 
The steam pressure is 200 say, multiplying the 16 by 
200 we have 3200 pounds. In the case of i-inch bolt, 
we would have a surplus of 2300 pounds of safe pres- 
sure allowed. 

151. Why is it necessary to use stay bolts on the 
fire box sheets, and not on the cylindrical part of the 
boiler. 

A. All pressures tend to form a sphere, and since 
the cylinder part of the boiler is round, it conforms 
to this shape in which the steam exerts its force. 
This can be proven in observation and in practice. 
For instance : when tubes are in bad shape, tube sheets 
very often bulge on account of the tubes losing their 
staying ability. 

152. How can you determine by looking at a loco- 
motive boiler whether it is a crown bar boiler or a 
radial stay boiler? 

A. The crown stay boiler has its dome over the 
fire box; the radial stay boiler has its dome ahead of 
the fire box. 

153. How should a crack in the five box be 
treated ? 

A. A slight crack in the fire box can be patched up 



l 2 8 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

with sewing plugs providing that the distance is not 
more than the distance between stay bolts. 

154. How should a crack in the boiler be repaired? 
A. The ends of the crack should be drilled and the 

sheat securely patched. 

155. What is one distinct advantage of the wide 
fire box over the smaller? 

A. The larger fire box has the advantage of direct 
heating surface, and in addition to this the large fire 
box provides for a slower rate of combustion result- 
ing in economy in fuel. 

156. Why does the large fire box promote a slower 
rate of combustion? 

A. Since the fire box heating surface has a greater 
value over tube-heating surface it is not necessary to 
force the fire and the passage of the products of com- 
bustion through the tubes is slower, giving more time 
for the water to absorb the heat contained in them. 

157. Of what material are boiler tubes made? 

A. Boiler tubes are generally made of charcoal 
iron with a Bessemer steel and welded on. 

158. What mileage is generally available on tubes 
of various types of engines? 

A. From 35,000 to 50,000 miles is a general aver- 
age with due regard to flue failures. 

159. What methods are suggested to help flue 
failures on large engines? 

A. If it were possible to have greater circulation 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 129 

space and some method of distributing feed water 
from the injector into the boiler without centralizing 
it at one spot. Another suggested method is to de- 
press the tubes slightly. 

160. What is boiler scale? 

A. Boiler scale is due to impurities in the w r ater. 

161. What are some of these impurities? 

A. Lime, alkali, magnesia are the principal agents. 

162. Will scale cause a hard steaming engine? 
A. Yes, it acts as an insulator of heat. 

163. Explain how scale acts as an insulator of 
heat. 

A. It has been shown that % inch of scale will in- 
crease the fuel consumption about 7 per cent, to 10 
per cent, and about ^-inch scale will increase the fuel 
consumption from about 18 per cent, to 20 per cent. 

164. How can you prove this by practical experi- 
ence? 

A. Engines turned out of shop with new flues will 
point it out clearly. The locomotive will do its for- 
mer amount of work with a much less fuel consump- 
tion, which is a well-known fact to all locomotive en- 
ginemen. 

165. What is grooving in a locomotive boiler? 

A. Grooving in a locomotive boiler is due to the 
action of the seam, but primarily to oxide of iron rust 
having formed as a thin scale. These scales keep 



130 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

breaking off as the grooving deepens, due to the 
buckling action. 

1 66. What is pitting in a locomotive boiler? 

A. Pitting is generally found on the water line. 
It is generally due to the chemical action of water. 

Pitting, it is claimed, is retarded by the use of char- 
coal ; iron boiler tubes experience shows that when a 
tube pits there is a small scale formed at the point 
where the hole is started, which some makers of tubes 
claim to be due to a gas found by the chemical 
constituents of the water. 

167. How may a mud-ring leak cause a groove? 
A. Any external leaks in time will cause grooves, 

especially so at this point because there is more or 
less sediment passes out and its grooving effect is in- 
creased by so doing. 

In some districts where water is impure, there are 
noted deposits of lime or other chemical elements 
where a leaky mud ring is let go, which tend to in- 
crease the grooving effect of the water. Oxides are 
also present, near a wet mud ring, which reduces the 
sheets on both sides, which also pits the mud ring. 

168. What method is used in supporting crown 
sheets ? 

A. The radial stay method is almost universally 
used at present. The older engines use what is known 
as the crown bar and sling stay method. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 131 

169. How would you find the safe working pres- 
sure of a locomotive boiler? 

A. Let us assume the boiler has 24 sheet and its 
largest ring is 72 inches, the tensile strength of the 
material is 55,000 pounds, the relative strength of the 
boiler seam to that of the solid plate is 85 per cent., 
therefore the formula is ^ x ££§£& =41250, which 
is the strength of the sheet, multiplying this by 85 per 
cent., the strength of the seam we have 35,062, then 
dividing by y 2 the diameter of the shell, which is 36 
inches, giving us 979, this divided by the factor of 
safety which is 4.5 or 4>4, will give us 217 pounds, 
the safe working pressure. 

170. Why are flues more liable to leak after the 
engine has been in service some time than when the 
engine is turned out of the shop with new flues? 

A. The new flue has been rolled but once, and we 
will say when put in service, after being in service 
some time, the frequent rolling reduces the metal and 
subsequently its holding power. 

By Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket Book tests 
show the holding power of a 2-inch flue to be 23,700 
pounds, or 2-^ of its tensile strength. 

It is safe to assume in this connection that the flue 
in a long boiler will sag a little, and the pressure ex- 
erted by the expansion of the flue will be resisted to 
such an extent to depress it more in the case of the 
old flue, the action of changing temperature tends to 



I 3 2 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

pull the flue through the sheet in the same manner 
and due to the reduction of metal from expanding 
is weakened to such an extent that its holding power 
is destroyed and leakage takes place. 

The factor of safety of a boiler is taken as the ratio 
of the load that would instantly break the material 
over the greatest safe ordinary load. 

The factor of safety is also taken to overcome de- 
fects in make up of the material. 

171. What are some of the prominent makes of 
safety valves? 

A. The Crosby, Ashcroft and the Consolidated. 

172. How is the pressure adjusted on a pop safety 
valve ? 

A. By a compression screw and check nut. 

173. Suppose the safety blows back too much 
pressure, how wuld you remedy this defect? 

A. The adjusting ring would be too high. It 
would be necessary to lower this ring in order to de- 
crease the steam blowed back. It must be remem- 
bered that the compression spring controls the open- 
ing of the valve and the adjusting ring the proper 
closing of the valve. 

174. What do you mean by saying that the ad- 
justing ring is too high? 

A. It is too near the valve. 

175. How is this ring adjusted? 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 133 

A. On the Ashton pop there are two adjusting 
screws for this purpose. 

176. How would you adjust the blow back? 

A. I would find a position with these side screws 
where the valve would blow back about 5 pounds be- 
fore closing. 

177. How can this be done? 

A. I would have a man in the cab while I was ad- 
justing these screws give me the pressures. 

178. Can you name a convenient way of setting 
the pop valve? 

A. Yes. Suppose the engine has a new pop and 
blows ofif at 80 pounds of steam, I would — if a four- 
cornered head on the tension screw — turn it one com- 
plete turn and note how much this caused the pressure 
to rise, and if the case was 120 pounds after one turn, 
each turn of the screw would indicate a rise of 40 
pounds per turn, or 10 pounds per side, if a square 
head. Then with two more complete turns the valve 
would be adjusted at 200 pounds, or very nearly so, 
which it is assumed that the boiler does carry. 

179. Has this method been tried and proven a suc- 
cess. 

A. It has several times. 

180. How would you guard against any over- 
pressure? 

A. By having a man in the cab and the steam chest 



l 3 4 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

relief valves off. He could relieve the boiler pressure 
by opening the throttle. 

181. What is the lift of a safety valve during the 
discharge ? 

A. Three and one-half-inch Crosby valve lifts 
about .08 of an inch. 

182. At 200 pounds' pressure what will the dis- 
charge of a 3^2-inch valve be? 

A. The Crosby will discharge 203.4 pounds of 
steam per minute at 200 pounds' gauge pressure. 

183. How is the safety valve size determined? 
A. By the following formula: ~ Wx70 x 11 where 

"W" represents weight of water evaporated per 
second and "70" a constant and "p" the steam pres- 
sure absolute. 

The flow of steam into the atmosphere in pounds 
per second^can be found by multiplying the area of the 
orifice or pipe by the absolute pressure, and dividing 
by 70 say 2-inch relief valve nipple on a steam chest 
when blowing steam off the area of the nipple will be 
2x2x7854=3.14 square inches, this multiplied by 
200 for example we have 628, dividing by 70, we 
have 8.9 pounds of steam per second. 

184. Why should external leaks about the boiler 
be repaired at once; especially where water and 
steam leakage is shown? 

A. The water escaping in small jets from a 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 135 

seam or mud-ring may cause corrosion from the 
continuous removal of the oxide of iron produced 
by the action of the water on the iron. 

185. What are some prominent causes of pit- 
ting other than those quoted herein? 

A. Forge scale or iron scale which is sometimes 
contained on safe ended flues, small particles of 
coke fed through injectors on coke burning engines. 
Small pieces of copper ferrules left in the boiler 
or brass chips, any of these may cause a galvanic 
action and a subsequent dissolving of the iron 
called pitting. 

186. Then pitting may be called an electro- 
chemical action? 

A. Yes. 

187. What are the parts of an injector? 

A. The steam nozzle, the combining tube, de- 
livery tube, line check valve, intermediate over- 
flow valve, and lever operated overflow valve of 
the Hancock inspirator. 

188. How much steam does the injector use? 
A. Each gallon of water consumes about two 

cubic feet of steam to operate the injector. This 
steam, which was used to operate the injector, is 
only 1-6 of its original volume — after doing its work. 

189. How much above the steam pressure will 
an injector force water? 

A. About 50 per cent, higher. 



136 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

190. Do all locomotive boilers make the same 
quality of steam? 

A. No. It will be seen by experience that the 
wagon top boiler makes a dryer quality of steam. 

191. On the larger types of engines, is the full 
throttle recommended with the straight boiler? 

A. No. The smaller types of engines this was 
possible, but on larger engines, experience shows 
that the engine will run away from the water; by 
this I mean to say an engine will run with wire 
drawn steam (throttle not quite wide open) will 
hold the water steadily at a certain point of in- 
jector feed. On the other hand, when the throttle 
is wide open, and the lever hooked up to give the 
same conditions of speed and work, it will be neces- 
sary to increase the injector feed to hold the w.ater 
in the same position in the boiler. By these obser- 
vations it will be seen that the full throttle on the 
large locomotives is not practical. 

192. How do you acount for the difference in 
performance in the foregoing question? 

A. One practical reason is advanced by saying 
that steam travels slower through the throttle and 
steam pipes, giving it time to be slightly super- 
heated. Another good reason is, the more the 
throttle is open, the higher the water will raise in 
the boiler, and during rapid evaporation is brought 
nearer the throttle valve, consequently small par- 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 137 

tides of water will be carried over into the cylin- 
der. It is a well-known fact when steam rises from 
the surface of the water it has a tendency to carry 
more or less spray with it, which, once in suspen- 
sion, does not rapidly settle against the current of 
outgoing steam, consequently passes through the 
cylinder and for these reasons the full throttle is 
not recommended. 

193. How would you know when ports are cov- 
ered, with Walscheart gear? 

A. Have the link block in the center of the link 
and the engine on the quarter. 



CHAPTER V. 

Superheaters. 



194. What is a locomotive superheater? 

A. A superheater is a device consisting of sev- 
eral U-shaped tubes extending from the front end 
steam pipes back through large tubes towards the 
firebox. These tubes series are connected to the 
steam pipe header, when steam is admitted to the 
cylinders, it must pass back near the fire through 
the superheater elements before it can pass to the 
cylinders, absorbing the heat of the gases in route 
to the smoke box, thereby increasing the heat of 
steam from 380 to 600 degrees F. 



138 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

195. Explain why a superheater is an advantage 
to a locomotive. 

A. Since heat is the cause of all motion it is 
clear that in the case of a superheater the tempera- 
ture being increased over 200 degrees over that of 
the saturated steam will point out clearly the 
amount of increased energy derived. In addition 
to this the superheater dries the moisture out of 
the steam, and converts it into superheated steam, 
making it more elastic and more economical on 
fuel and water. In the engine using saturated 
steam, as has already been shown, some of the 
incoming steam is condensed from warming up the 
cylinder walls to about the temperature of the in- 
coming steam. When the admission of steam is cut 
off an expansion commences, the condensation due 
to the cylinder walls continues until some point 
during expansion, the water on the cylinder walls 
begins to re-evaporate at such a rate that the weight 
of steam at the end of the stroke is greater than 
at the point of cut off. In case of the superheater 
re-evaporation can hardly take place since conden- 
sation is materially done away with. 

196. What other advantages are derived from 
superheated steam? 

A. The increase of efficiency is from 10 per cent 
to 20 per cent., the reduction of fuel consumption is 
about 15 to 30 per cent. It is possible to reduce boil- 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 139 

er pressure on engines carrying 200 to 180 lbs., and 
still get better service from the engine at a 10 per cent, 
reduction in steam pressure. This being done also to 
cut down boiler troubles which is worked out quite 
satisfactorily. A number of roads have bored out 
cylinders from 2 to 3 inches more in diameter, and 
cutting down the steam pressure at the same time, 
making about the same tractive force at a lower steam 
pressure. Experience shows that it would be impos- 
sible to do this with a saturated steam engine, since 
the steam qualities of the engine is very sensitive to 
any cylinder diameter change. 

197. Is the exhaust nozzle increased with the in- 
troduction of super-heat engines over that of a sat- 
urated steam engine of the same cylinder dimensions? 

A. No. Usually it is necessary to run a nozzle of 
a little smaller diameter on the super-heat engine in 
freight service, but not always in passenger service. 

198. Does the smaller nozzle choke the engine, 
and explain. 

A. It does not choke the engine up because the 
steam is much less in volume, and hotter than saturat- 
ed steam would be when passing through the stack, 
and therefore travels at higher velocity. Experience 
has shown that the super-heat engine will run much 
faster under the same conditions as the saturated 
steam engine on account of the relative differences in 
the volumes of the steam. 



l 4 o PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

199. What can be said about the amount of water 
to be carried in the super-heat engine? 

A. The water should be carried about I 1 /* to 2 
gauges in order to keep the water out of the super- 
heater, and thereby reduces its efficiency. 

200. How is the moisture known in saturated 
steam, or how does saturated steam differ from super- 
heated steam? 

A. In the super-heated steam at 600 degrees is 
practically a gas, while saturated steam is composed 
of quite a little moisture, depending sometimes a great 
deal on the design of the boiler in which it is gener- 
ated, the water being suspended in the steam. There 
is a method in telling the amount of moisture in steam 
known as the calorimeter. There are several types of 
these instruments; one of the most common type is 
the barrel calorimeter, consisting of a barrel with a 
convenient amount of water in it, into which steam is 
blown and its moisture tabulated from the temper- 
ature derived and accurate record of its weights kept. 

201. What precaution should be used when start- 
ing a train in using super-heated steam? 

A. Start very slowly in case it is necessary to take 
the slack. Be very careful when the lever is placed 
in the forward gear. The reason for this is since the 
engine has stood for some time, the super-heated 
damper is closed, and when the train is started, the 
energy of the steam is about that of saturated steam 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 141 

until the heat can be imparted to the super-heater by 
an increased draft through the larger tubes in which 
the super-heater elements are set. An engine stand- 
ing with super-heated damper shut, will impart but 
little heat to the super-heater, but in case of taking 
the slack the damper is opened, and the steam con- 
tained in the steam pipe and super-heater will at once 
be heated to about the regular temperature of 600 de- 
grees, especiallly when the blower is on, and as the 
lever is thrown in full forward gear the effort of the 
engine is greatly increased, due to the energy impart- 
ed to the steam which had stood in the super-heater 
during the time the lever had been reversed. 

In connection with the application of super-heated 
steam, it may be stated, the law of expansion of gases 
under a constant pressure is increased or decreased in 
volume nearly -I_ of its volume for each degree 
of centigrade to which it is heated or cooled. 

The chief object in superheated steam is to drive 
as nearly as possible the expansion of a perfect gas. 

To simplify the expansion or the action of a per- 
fect gas. 

Suppose the locomotive is working cutting off at 
J4 of the stroke the engines cylinders are 20 x 28 
steam is admitted to the cylinders at 160 pounds per 
square inch, up to the point of cut off we have 160 
pounds of steam after cutting off and expanding to 



I 4 2 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

y 2 stroke, which would be 14 inches, we should have 
80 pounds' pressure. At Y<\ stroke we should have 40, 
and so on. 

Saturated steam locomotives do not come very 
close to expanding steam adabatically. 

Some rates of condensation of saturated steam in 
locomotives' cylinders are as follows : 

At quarter cut off 25% 

At half stroke 14% 

At two-thirds stroke 12% 

The super-heater overcomes these defects. 

The Locomotive Superheater Co. give us the fol- 
lowing instructions for care and management of the 
superheater : 

The superheater as applied to locomotives, consists 
of three or more horizontal rows of large boiler flues 
across the upper part of the boiler, each containing a 
superheater unit. The usual size of these flues is 5^ 
inches, or 5^2 inches outside diameter, except at fire 
box end, where the diameter is reduced to 4^2 inches 
by swaging. The superheater unit is a continuous 
tube formed of four seamless steel superheater tubes, 
connected by three return bends. The front end of 
these units are bent and clamped to the superheater 
header in the smoke box. The connection is made 
steam tight, either by a ball joint, or in a few special 
cases by a copper-asbestos gasket. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 143 

The steam passages in the header are so separated 
that the steam from the dry pipe has to pass through 
the superheater units on its way to the cylinders. 

In operation,, part of the hot fire box gases flow 
through the large flues and give up some of their heat 
units to the large flue and surrounding water the same 
as in the regular boiler tubes. Other heat units are 
absorbed by the tubes of the superheater units. This 
heat in the tubes is transferred to the steam passing 
through them on its way from the dry pipe to the 
cylinder, and as a result the steam has a much higher 
temperature on reaching the cylinders than when it 
left the boiler, briefly stated it is superheated steam. 

The amount or degree of superheat is the increase 
of the final temperature of the steam leaving the su- 
perheater over that of the steam and water in the 
boiler. For example, steam at 200 lbs. gauge pres- 
sure has a temperature of 387.5 deg. F. on enter- 
ing the dry pipe. On leaving the superheater, sup- 
pose it has a temperature of 600 deg. F. In that 
case, it has been superheated in its passage through 
the superheater by an amount equal to the difference 
between 600 and 387^, i. e., 212^/2 deg. F. To se- 
cure the best results the quantity of heat transmitted 
through the superheater units should be sufficient to 
superheat the steam to an average temperature of 600 
deg. F. 

The superheater damper is used to prevent burning 



144 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

of the superheater tubes when there is no steam pass- 
ing through them. The front end of the large flues 
discharge into a chamber which is separated from the 
rest of the smoke box by partition plates and the au- 
tomatically operated damper. This superheater dam- 
per is held open by pressure of the steam from the 
steam chest acting on the piston in the damper cylin- 
der, and permits the hot gases to flow through the 
boiler flues. It is closed by a weight as soon as the 
throttle is closed, and thereby stops the flow of hot 
gases through the large flues. 

In some instances where special service of the en- 
gine requires it, the damper cylinder has been con- 
nected to the blower pipe instead of to the steam pipe. 
When this arrangement is used, the damper remains 
open at all times except when the blower is turned on, 
the counterweight acting to keep the damper open. 

With reference to the design and material of en- 
gine details, the following brief recommendations are 
made: 

Cylinder oil of high grade and high flash point is 
recommended. 

Direct lubrication of the cylinder is recommended, 
and all cylinders should have an oil connection leading 
to the center of the top of the cylinders. If the sup- 
ply of oil to the valve chamber and cylinder of the 
engine is regular it will be found that the superheater 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 145 

engine takes but little more oil than the ordinary loco- 
motive. 

Each steam chest should be supplied with oil 
through one pipe leading directly from the lubricator 
and delivering oil in the top center of the steam chest 
for all inside admission valves. When the relief valve 
is located on the steam chest in such a way as to pre- 
vent the oil being delivered at that point, it is recom- 
mended that the oil feed deliver the oil in the steam 
pipe, or steam passage, leading to the steam chest. 
The use of an oil pipe having a branch connection 
just above the steam chest, and delivering oil at two 
points in each steam chest is not recommended, as the 
results obtained with this form oi oil distribution are 
not wholly satisfactory. 

Relief valves having ample area are recommended 
for the cylinder heads front and back, and the steam 
chest or steam pipes should have large-sized vacuum 
valves. 

Piston-rod and piston-valve stem extensions are 
recommended in order to reduce the wear of moving 
parts,, and permit all packing rings to float free from 
weight of piston and valves. 

Piston valve rings and bushings should be made of 
close-grained cylinder iron. 

The regular piston rod and valve steam packing 
may be used. Packing rings made of a mixture of 80 
per cent, lead and 20 per cent, antimony have given 



146 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

satisfactory service with the highest degree of super- 
heat. 

Swabs and oil cups should be applied and main- 
tained in good condition on piston rods and valve 
stems. The same oil should be used for the swabs as 
is used for cylinder lubrication. 



HINTS. 

Don't forget when switching that there is more 
steam between the throttle and cylinders with the 
superheater than with the saturated steam engine — 
the superheater holds some. 

Don't carry water too high just because you don't 
hear any in the smoke stack. You might be using 
your superheater to boil water instead of heating 
steam. 

Don't think because your engine steams that you 
are getting the full value of the superheat; your 
engine may not be calling for the capacity of your 
boiler. 

Don't close your throttle entirely on road engines 
until you get to going quite slow; your cylinder 
lubrication will be much better. 

Don't shake the grates violently when the engine 
is working hard (we know it is easier, because we 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 147 

have done it, but it was wrong) ; it causes the tubes 
and superheater units to choke up more frequently. 

Don't fire your coal too wet; it won't clinker so 
badly if reasonably dry. The more you rake the 
fire the more the flues will stop up. There are only 
two reasons why a fire should be raked : one, be- 
cause too much coal is used, and the other because 
it is not put in the right place. 

Keep after the terminal forces to clean the super- 
heater units. Watch this a little when you have an 
opportunity. You are liable to find them using 
anything from a short flue augor to a i^-inch pipe. 
They should use about a ^-inch pipe, long enough 
to go THROUGH the flues, and this should be used 
w T ith a high air pressure, along with suitable hooks 
and scrapers to fully clean the superheater units. 
If it is done in this way, they will not be clean, and 
the money invested in the superheater is worse than 
wasted, because you will then have a saturated 
steam engine with a low-pressure boiler with de- 
creased heating surface, impaired water circulation 
drafted too strong through lower flues, causing 
holes to come through the fire near the flue-sheet, 
which has a tendency to make them leak. If this is 
allowed you have a low pressure saturated steam 
engine w r ith big cylinders, and generally nothing 
to put in them. ** 



148 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

CHAPTER VI. 

Locomotive Running and Management. 

52. What usually is the reason for steam being 
wasted from the safety valve? 

A. Poor management of the engine. 

53. What is the estimated waste of coal for each 
minute the safety valve is open? 

A. About 16 pounds per minute. 

54. What should be done to prevent waste of 
steam through the safety valve? 

A. Co-operation of the engineer and fireman. 
With economy of fuelin view. 

55. What should be the condition of fire on arriv- 
ing at a station where a stop is to be made? 

A. The fire should be bright and the gas burned 
off to prevent emission of smoke. 

56. How should you build up the fire when at sta- 
tions in order to avoid black smoke? 

A. One shovelfull at a time, have blowers on and 
the door on the latch. 

57. What should be the condition of the fire when 
passing over the summit of a long grade? 

A. Have the fire covered over a little so to hold 
the steam pressure up to prevent wide variations of 
steam pressures and leaky flues. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 149 

58. Is it advisable to keep the water at the proper 
level and how should it be supplied? 

A. Yes. The water should be carried as high as 
consistent in order to assure working dry steam and 
the injector regulating valve set to keep it there. 

59. Why is it that if there is a thin fire with a 
hole in it the steam pressure will fall at once? 

A. Large volumes of air will pass through the 
hole, nearly four-fifths of the air being nitrogen will 
absorb a great deal of the heat of the fuel and thus 
preventing the same to be absorbed by the water in 
the boiler. 

60. What would be the result of starting a heavy 
train with too thin a fire on the grates? 

A. To grate a supply of air the engine will not 
steam well. 

61. Where should the coal, as a rule, be placed in 
the fire box? 

A. At the sides and corners. 

62. Within what limits may steam pressure be al- 
lowed to vary economically, and why? 

A. From 10 to 15 pounds to prevent wide varia- 
tion in steam pressures and leaky flues, broken stay 
bolts, etc. 

63. Is it advisable to raise steam pressure rapidly? 
A. No it may overheat the boiler. 

64. Has improper firing any tendency to cause 
tubes to leak? How? 



l S o PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. Yes. Causes a wide variation in steam pressure 
and unequal expansion and contraction. 

65. What would you consider abuse of a boiler? 

A. Quick throtteling, improper running of the in- 
jector, pumping the engine excessively when shut off, 
using the blower too hard when cleaning the fire, fir- 
ing up too quickly, etc. 

66. How would you take care of a boiler with 
leaky tubes or fire box ? 

A. Would put a fire up over the leaky flues if I 
could and have the flues repaired at terminal. Some- 
times bran introduced into the tank and fed into the 
boiler will let you get your train into the terminal. 

67. When and why should you wet the coal in the 
tender? 

A. Before starting out on the trip to prevent the 
fine particles of coal being drawn through the flues. 

68. What are the advantages of a large grate sur- 
face? 

A. A slower rate of combustion per square foot. 

9. What is important in carrying water in the 
boiler, as to height and regularity? 

A. With a constant supply of water fed to the 
boiler about as fast as is being used results in a 
more even steaming engine. The height of water 
in the glass should be just sufficient to insure dry 
steam being worked. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 151 

10. What effect does shutting off the throttle 
have on the water in the boiler? 

A. It causes it to drop down in the glass. 

11. Should the water in the boiler get to low 
to allow you time for examination, what would you 
do? 

A. I would bank the fire with dirt ashes or wet 
coal until steam was lowered to allow examination. 

12. How would you ascertain a boiler was foam- 
ing or being over-pumped? 

A. Shut the throttle; should the water show in 
the glass solidly it would be over-pumping or 
priming. 

13. What portions of the engine would you dis- 
connect in a case, provided it is necessary to draw 
the fire? 

A. If a short distance to go I would leave all 
rods up, also valve gear, provided I could lubricate 
cylinders and valves through the independent 
oilers. In cold weather I would disconnect steam 
connections to the air pump, take out saddle and 
cylinder cocks, drain off the lubricator, take out 
wash out plugs, disconnect tank feed hose, blow 
out the air pumps thoroughly before disconnecting. 

Sometimes there is an accumulation of water in 
the passages to the cylinder saddle. In cases like 
this, if rods are left up, I would run the engine 



I 5 2 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

ahead, keeping the lever in the back gear, that is, if 
I were to be towed into my terminal the above 
would force the water out of these passages into the 
boiler and out of the washout holes. 

14. What is important to observe in setting up 
or adjusting wedges? 

A. To see that they are not too tight and to 
guard against sticking. 

15. How should an injector be started? 

A. Should be started slowly to allow time for 
priming; after this should be pulled on slowly. 

16. How should an injector be stopped? 

A. The injector should be stopped slowly in 
order to prevent the boiler check slamming and in- 
juring it. 

17. Explain the essential working features of an 
injector? 

.A Velocity of steam, combining with it water 
to give it mass, and the product of the two giving 
the force. 

18. How should the different makes of injectors 
be converted into a heater? 

A. Hancock close the overflow valve, place 
starting lever in priming position, open the priming 
valve a little; Seller's improved close overflow 
valve, move the starting lever to priming position. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 153 

19. How does an injector raise water to the 
overflow? 

A. By drawing the air out of the suction pipe 
the pressure of the atmosphere on the water in the 
tank forces it up to the injector and out the over- 
flow. 

20. Why can an injector force water into a 
boiler against the boiler pressure? 

A. Because we have the velocity of steam com- 
bined with the mass or weight of the water giving 
force (any force is equal to mass times) ; accelera- 
tion steam has speed or acceleration but no mass 
(weight), and the combination of the two give the 
force. 

21. In what way would you have control of your 
engine with broken link hanger, in case it was not 
practicable to run with link blocked up? 

A. Place the lever in full gear and work with 
a light throttle, increase lubrication on that side. 

22. Should the throttle valve become discon- 
nected inside the boiler partly open, wide open or 
closed, what would you do? 

A. If wide open, reduce steam pressure so the 
engine could be handled with the lever and brake. 
If partially open, get into your terminal with what 
train you can handle. Should it become discon- 
nected, closed and descending a grade, I would 



154 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

place the lever in the back gear when near the foot 
of the hill and pull the throttle stem out; the air 
pressure may be enough to open the throttle valve. 
By doing it this way would let you into your ter- 
minal or to clear the main line. 

Should it be disconnected after stopping you will 
have to be towed in. However, you might get 
steam enough through the lubricator steam pipes 
by taking out the choke plugs to get in to clear. 

23. Name the leading valve gears now used on 
American railways. 

A. The Baker-Pilliod, Walschaert and Stephen- 
son Valve Gears. 

24. What are some of the important features of 
the Baker-Pilliod valve gears? 

A. The elimination of sliding joints, for in- 
stance : the link block, a motion nearly in a straight 
line. All pins and bushings nearly of a standard 
size, so that the valve gear may be rebushed at a 
comparatively short time. A quick opening of the 
valve, or a full port opening of 5 per cent, of the 
total absence of preadmission are the chief functions 
of this gear. 

Therefore in the mid-gear, with the reverse lever 
in the center notch, this will be practically all the 
motion imparted to the valve. 

The valve gear consists of the following parts: 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 155 

Eccentric rod, eccentric arm, eccentric crank, com- 
bination lever, crosshead yoke, union link, combi- 
nation lifter, valve rod, bell crank, reverse yoke, 
radius arm, reverse arm, reverse shaft. 

25. How is the variable lead derived on the 
Walschaert valve gear? 

A. By setting the eccentric arm back of the 
present location for constant lead, which is 90 de- 
grees ; the range of valve events are less in the 
back gear than with the constant lead valve gear, 
and the subsequent reduction of the tractive power 
of the engine in the back gear. 

BREAKDOWNS ON THE PILLIOD VALVE 

GEAR. 

In case of a broken eccentric crank or rod, remove 
rod and broken parts; replace pin to the lifter bar; 
then block reverse yoke and radius yoke together 
and proceed with lap and lead travel of the valve 
and leave main rod up. 

In case crosshead yoke or union link should 
break, remove and block combination lever and 
proceed with port opening travel of the valve; 
leave the main rod up. 

In case of a broken reverse yoke, radius yoke, 
lifter bar, eccentric arm, combination lever, bell 



156 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

crank, gear valve rod or lower reverse arm, remove 
crosshead connection and eccentric rod, block valve 
with a little forward port opening; take out for- 
ward cylinder cock and increase lubrication on that 
side; leave the main rod up. 

26. Explain the principal of how variable lead 
is accomplished in the Walschaert valve gear. 

A. By setting eccentric crank back of the nor- 
mal position, the events of the stroke are later. On 
the forward and back centers of this type of valve 
gear, the combination lever ,and eccentric are 
counter-motions at certain positions of the stroke, 
or in other words, the eccentric tends to move the 
valve to produce later lead while the combination 
lever tends to give constant lead by increasing and 
decreasing the travel of the valve on the centers. 
Since the eccentric and combination lever are to a 
certain extent dual motions (opposite to one an- 
other) it is evident that hooking up of the lever, 
the effect of the eccentric on the valve will be de- 
creased, but the function of the combination lever 
which is constant will be increased, relatively. The 
eccentric, in other words, destroys the constant 
lead feature in full gear, but as the effect of the ec- 
centric is less when the lever is hooked up the 
engine then has the variable lead feature as found 
in the Stephenson gear. By a close study of these 
"positions, it will be seen how this is produced. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 157 

2J. What can be said in comparison of the con- 
stant lead and variable lead valve gears from a 
practical experience standpoint. 

A. The variable lead engine is a much better 
working engine, and the disadvantage of reducing 
the back motion by setting eccentric back, is over- 
come by the good results, of the resultant increases 
in the forward gear. 

28. What ,are some of the most prominent 
causes of the Walschaert gear sounding out of 
square? 

A. At short cut-off, worn pins and bushings in 
the link block radius rod, and principally in the sus- 
pension hanger, and reach rod, and its connections 
to the quadrant. 

29. On larger types of engines does the eccen- 
tric lead or follow the main pin? 

A. In a great many cases it leads the main pin. 

30. What bad feature is advanced against its 
location ahead of the pin? 

A. In running ahead the link block is above the 
center of the link, and in the event of a broken sus- 
pension hanger, or one of its pins working out, the 
radius rod would drop to the bottom of the link, and 
may reverse the engine on that side, since the other 
link block is above the link center. 



158 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

31. What strain is a valve subject to in ordin- 
ary service? 

A. The lowest strain that I have any record oi 
is 250 lbs. taken at the valve stem. 

32. With the Stephenson & Walschaert valve 
gears, what causes an engine when starting a train 
and hooked up a little, to sound out of square, but 
when speed is raised, the valves seem to square up, 
especially so with the light train? 

A. With the Walschaert valve gear, the friction 
of the valve keeps the lost motion drawn up be- 
tween the valve and link to a certain extent, the in- 
ertia of the ecentrcic will take up quite a little at 
these points at high speed. On the Stephenson 
gear the friction of the eccentric cams will cause 
the link and hanger to maintain its lowest point, 
taking up a great deal of its lost motion. These 
conditions must, of course, have valves well lubri- 
cated, kept free from water to produce these results. 

34. How can you tell the difference in the out- 
side admission and the inside admission valves by 
the Walschaert valve gear? 

A. The valve stem will be connected to top of 
combination lever if the engine has outside admis- 
sion valves. If the valve stem is below the radius 
bar connection it will have inside admission valves. 

35. At what point is the eccentric located rela- 
tive to the main pin? 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 159 

A. The eccentric is located at 90 deg. ahead or 
behind the main pin, according to how the engine 
is set up. 

36. How is it compared with the Stephenson 
gear eccentric location? 

A. The Stephenson valve gear eccentrics are lo- 
cated 90 degrees minus the lap and lead of the valve. 

37. What is known as the range of cut off? 

A. The range of cut off is the extreme points in 
which the valve will cut off the steam at boiler 
pressure to the cylinders. On freight engines it 
runs from 1 or 2 per cent, when lever is in center 
notch to 90 per cent., when the lever is in the cor- 
ner. 

46. How would you center the valve on the 
Walschaert valve gear? 

A. Set the engine on the quarter or a position 
where the combination lever will stand plumb, place 
the lever in the center and note the position of the 
link block in the link it should be in the center in 
this position the valve should stand central. 

47. How would you set the valve central on the 
Stephenson valve gear? 

A. Set the rocker arm plumb engine standing 
on the top or bottom quarter, reverse lever in cen- 
ter notch should bring this about. 

48. Does lead help to start the train? 



160 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. No, lead does not help to start the train; 
starting is accomplished by the opposite cylinder. 

49. What does the increasing of lead do in re- 
gard to other events of the stroke? 

A. The earlier the lead the same points stroke, 
namely admission, cut off, release and compression 
are earlier. 

50. When a number of engines of the same class 
and design are assigned to a division, a great dif- 
ference is noted in the running, steaming and haul- 
ing capacity. How do you account for some of 
this? 

A. It is quite evident in practice to find this 
condition existing, and the writer has given consid- 
erable study to this question. The difference in 
these engines is started at the throttle valve to 
make sure of its opening, the steam throttle and dry 
pipes may have uneven surface on their inside, and 
especially in the cylinder saddle the curvatures 
where the most resistance is given to the flow of 
steam may be rough in one engine and comparative- 
ly smooth in the other. The exhaust passages may 
be so contracted by faulty coreing to restrict the 
passage of the steam through these parts. All these 
passages which are in a position that they cannot 
be readily examined. The interior of the exhaust 
bases show a variation in the metal used and in 
the single exhaust nozzle, the height of the bridge 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 161 

relative to that of the length of the base materially 
affects the running of the engine. 

The steam leaving the exhaust tip meets with 
some resistance in the exhaust base tip if lipped 
and through the petticoat pipe and stack. Stacks 
are invariably rough inside, resulting in greater 
friction to the passage of steam and the products 
of combustion. The steaming of the engine may 
be retarded by loose or le.aky joints that cannot be 
found without the application of a hydraulic test 
and then it must be careful to be sure all the air is 
out of the ports and passages to the atmosphere 
when testing. 

The valve motion should be closely checked to 
see that the port marks are accurate and eccentrics 
properly located. 

The amount of water used by an engine depends 
on the quality of steam which is generated in the 
boiler. Experience shows that there is quite a dif- 
ference in the quality of steam generated even 
when the boilers are of the same design. 

The deposits of scale on the heating surface of 
one boiler may be greater than another. This, of 
course, would cause a variation in the amount of 
water converted into steam per pound of coal. 

It must be remembered that the amount of water 
used by an engine may be due to the following de- 
fects: Running the heating surface up too high by 



1 62 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

spacing tubes. To close this would not allow suf- 
ficient water to pass to the lower Rues, resulting in 
damp steam, and even pinning may result. 

The design of the water legs are of no little value 
and the same should be sloped enough to give a 
width at the top to allow a free circulation. 

Any of these defects will result in a poor steam- 
ing engine for the reason that the heat in fuel can- 
not be conducted into the water at the rate it should 
be, clue to the absence of the proper supply not 
being available at these points. 

51. Is lead of any advantage to the engine? 

A. There are several arguments for and against 
this important subject and the following questions 
came up in the Traveling Engineers' Convention in 
1912: — 

52. How much lead do you allow freight and 
switch engines? In replying to this and subsequent 
questions state whether you make any difference for 
lead in saturated steam and superheated steam engines 
of the same class, using the Stephenson gear and 
slide valves. 

53. How much lead do you allow engines in pas- 
senger, freight and switch service with piston valves 
with the Walschaert valve gear? 

54. How much lead do you give engines with slide 
valves and the Walschaert valve gear in the same 
service. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 163 

55. Have you had engines in service without lead 
and state size, service, etc.? 

56. Have you experimented with different leads 
in various types of engines and kinds of service and 
give results? 

57. Have you a standard lead for engines of dif- 
ferent types in the same service? 

To these questions the committee made the follow- 
ing answers: — 

There are many good arguments for lead. 

It is impossible to give a fixed rule for the amount 
of lead to be given an engine for the amount of lead 
given an engine in one case would not do at all in 
another on account of the difference in clearance vol- 
ume, cut-off and other causes that would influence 
lead. 

The only practical way to determine is by the use 
of the indicator, which, if correctly used, will show 
whether or not the engine has the proper valve setting. 

The advantages of lead are as follows. — 

It gives what is termed pre-admission of steam, or 
steam i sadmitted to the cylinder before the piston 
has returned to the end of the stroke, thus furnishing 
a cushion for the piston and reciprocating parts. 

It gives a w r ider opening of the steam ports when 
steam is admitted to the cylinder before the piston 
boiler pressure at the beginning of the stroke and also 
gives an increased port opening after the crank pin 



zS4 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

has passed the center by keeping the port open longer 
than it would be were there no lead. 

Lead permits an earlier cut-off in the stroke and 
consequently longer expansion of the steam. An 
increase of 1-2 of an inch in lead would reduce the 
cut-off a total of one inch on one side of the locomo- 
tive, but it must be remembered that increasing the 
lead hastens every operation of the valve. During the 
exhaust of a locomotive the walls of the cylinder have 
a chance to cool to certain extent and the pre-admis- 
sion of steam or lead insures the reheating of these 
parts at an earlier moment than would be the case 
without lead. 

The disadvantages of lead. 

When the crank pin is at or near the dead center 
any pressure against the piston will have no effect to 
turn the wheel and if the engine has lead it will ac- 
tually tend to work against the engine on the other 
side of the locomotive, which is at its mid stroke and 
therefore doing all the work at that instant of moving 
the locomotive forward; especially is this true for 
locomotives used in slow service and hard pulls. This 
may be overcome to a certain degree by setting the 
valve blind in the back gear in order to help the for- 
ward gear. By doing this the lead is made almost 
constant for full and half stroke. 

We know that when an engine is running at full 
speed, if we shut off and drift we notice no ill effects 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 165 

from pounding; in fact, the engine sometimes runs 
better, due to the lack of pounding, which indicates 
that a cushion by steam is not necessary, as pro- 
vided for by lead to arrest the motions of the recip- 
rocating parts. , 

On most all locomotives with the Walschaert valve 
gear have constant lead for all cut-offs. This has 
these advantages : the clearance volume is to be 
filled with steam before the beginning of the stroke 
is the same and amount of time for rilling this space 
with steam decreases. This shows that the amount 
of lead which would do for slow speed would not 
give the best results for high speed. Therefore, a con- 
stant lead is not desirable. 

Again suppose an engine with a Walschaert valve 
gear and constant lead to be working with the lever 
in the corner and the piston nearing the end of the 
stroke. In this position the piston is traveling slowly 
while the valve is traveling fast. Due to the lead of 
the valve the piston has one and one-half to two 
inches to go yet, while a large amount of steam is 
admitted to the cylinder. All lost motion of the worn 
parts, if any, will be taken up suddenly and a pound 
will result. It would indicate from this fact that 
a negative lead would be an advantage because the 
steam could not be admitted to the cylinder until the 
piston w r ould be in position to use it to good, actual 
work in turning the wheels. 



1 66 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

With the modern engine equipped with piston 
valves the exhaust lap is no doubt a move in the 
direction of fuel economy, also water. 

You can, by this method, cushion [he reciprocating 
parts and fill the clearance space by compression and 
to a certain extent maintain cylinder temperature by 
compression. 

Then when the crank passes the center let pre- 
admission take place, since the pressure obtained by 
compression will be nearly up to boiler pressure no 
loss should result. 

The physical characteristics of the road have quite 
an influence on lead also. 

58. Tell the difference between the slide valve 
blowing and the cylinder packing, and in what man- 
ner can you tell on which side your packing is 
blowing? 

A. Cylinder packing blow will show starting 
the train and will be steady. The side can be 
determined by watching the cross head. A slide 
valve blow will be a squeeky or whistling noise and 
continuous. 

59. How would you test for a blow in the valve 
of a piston valve engine? 

A. Set the engine on top quarter, open throttle, 
put lever in center, open the cylinder cocks and see 
if steam escapes. If it does, the valve will be blow- 
ing on that side. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 167 

60. What would you do if you had broken a 
spring or hanger on a standard overhung engine 
and had cramped the reach rod at short cut-off? 

A. I would remove pin at the reverse arm and 
block one link where the engine would start the 
train on any grade and slack off on the counter bal- 
ance spring ,and proceed ; that is, for a short dis- 
tance to go. If any great distance, would treat this 
break down as given in question 140. (B. & M.) 

A question is sometimes .asked, Why does an en- 
gine take more steam when the lever is dropped 
nearer the corner and explain? 

When the lever is dropped nearer the corner the 
top of the link is brought nearer the link block pin, 
giving the valve a greater travel and making all 
events of the stroke later. When the engine is be- 
ing worked at 8 inches (cut off) that when the 
lever is dropped to bring a 12-inch cut-off with a 
20-inch cylinder that the steam follows the piston 
at boiler pressure up to this point and uses nearly 
1,250 more cubic inches than it did in the 8-inch 
notch at each stroke. 

Therefore the consumption of steam is greater 
than the amount of fuel fed to the fire : also the 
water must be increased correspondingly, 

61. What should be done when both eccentrics 
slip? 

A. In first method of question 118. B. & M. 



1 68 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

62. Tell how you would test for a blow of the 
admission or exhaust rings of a piston valve en- 
gine? 

A. Place the engine on the top quarter. Give 
the engine steam. Reverse the lever from front to 
back corner; should it pull harder back it would 
indicate the back end of the valve had defec- 
tive rings and resulted in unbalancing the valve. 
Another way would be to set the lever on the cen- 
ter, open the throttle, and watch the stack by put- 
ting a little coal on the fire and making a little 
smoke would show the blow clearly in a double 
nozzle engine. Should steam show at the cylinder 
cocks it would indicate in these tests a defective 
ring. 

63. In testing for blows, is it necessary to take 
into consideration the fact of an engine having a 
single or double nozzle? 

A. It is. 

64. How would you test for a blow in by-pass 
valve of a piston valve engine? 

A. Place the engine on the quarter lever in 2-3 
gear, open the throttle. Should there be a strong 
blow at the stack it will show that a by-pass valve 
was defective, especially so if the blow showed 
when the crosshead was traveling in one direction. 

65. What is a by-pass valve? What is the duty 
of a by-pass valve? 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 169 

A. It is a valve forming a communication be- 
tween the steam cavity in saddle, or main steam 
channel, and the steam port. To prevent the for- 
mation of a vacuum in the cylinder when the engine 
is drifting. 

66. Does the by-pass valve let air in from the 
atmosphere when the engine is drifting? 

A. No, it admits the air that is compressed in 
one end of the cylinder to flow into the other end 
through the steam ports and main steam channel, 
in this way passing the air back and forth between 
the two ends of the cylinder. 

67. How many by-pass valves is each cylinder 
provided with? 

A. Two, one connected with each steam port. 

68. What would be the result if a by-pass valve 
is broken or stuck open? 

A. It will cause the engine to blow at the stack, 
the blow often being mistaken as indicating defec- 
tive cylinder packing or a defective valve. 

69. How would you locate a defective by-pass 
valve when running? When standing? 

A. If the cylinder is fitted with two by-pass 
valves and one of them is broken or stuck open, 
the engine will have three clear exhausts and a 
blow. I would observe the position of the cross- 
head when the blow takes place; if the blow occurs 
when the piston is leaving the forward end of the 



l 7 o PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

cylinder it would indicate that the back by-pass 
valve is defective, and if when the piston is leaving 
the back end of the cylinder it would indicate that 
the front by-pass valve is broken. I would place 
the engine on either the top or bottom quarter on 
the side to be tested, and with the reverse lever in 
the forward corner set the driver brake, open the 
cylinder cocks and give the engine steam. As in 
this position the back steam port will be open, if 
steam comes from both cylinder cocks it would in- 
dicate that the forward by-pass valve is broken. 
To test further, would place the reverse lever in 
the back corner, leaving the engine in the same 
position ; this will open the front steam port, and 
if steam shows only at the front cylinder cock 
would feel safe in reporting the front by-pass 
valve. The other by-pass valve can be tested in 
this way. If steam shows at both cylinder cocks 
with the reverse lever in either corner, either both 
by-pass valves are broken or the cylinder packing 
is broken. 

70. How would you proceed with a badly broken 
by-pass valve? 

A. If the engine w,as all right otherwise, I 
would remove the broken by-pass valve, insert a 
blind gasket between it and the steam chest, and 
replace the valve. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 



171 



71. How would you manage in case you found 
one broken? 

A. This depends on the construction of the 
valve. Should they be bolted on, put in a blind 
gasket between the valve and cylinder. Should it 
be a double by-pass valve with a dashpot and tie 
rod, take out the valve and block it closed, using 
washers or nuts for the purpose. 

72. Describe how^ the steam enters and is dis- 
charged from the cylinders? 

A. The valve moves back, opening the steam 
port; steam enters the cylinder through the steam 
port and after the valve cuts it off expands to 
nearly the end of the stroke. The valve then moves 
ahead, connects the steam and exhaust ports to- 
gether by its cavity, allowing the steam to pass to 
the atmosphere. 

73. What is the difference between a right and 
left lead engine? 

A. A right lead engine has the main pin 1-4 
turn ahead of the left side. 

74. If a right lead engine is on the top quarter, 
w T hat position is the left side in? 

A. On the back center. 

75. If the reverse lever is placed in the centre 
when engine is standing as in the last question, 
what would be the position of the right valve? 
What would be the position of the left valve? 



172 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. The valve would stand central. The back 
steam port would be open. 

76. What is the vacuum or relief valve on the 
steam chest for? 

A. To allow the engine to draw air into the 
cylinders when drifting and relieve itself. An en- 
gine when shut off and drifting is simply converted 
into a pump. 

yy. What would you do in case vacuum relief 
valve blew out? 

A. I would try and plug it, using a chain around 
the steam chest to hold it in place, wedging it in 
that position. 

78. What would you do in case a gauge cock 
blew out? 

A. Would reduce steam pressure, trying to plug 
same when steam was down. 

79. What would you do in case the throttle stem 
packing blew out? 

A. Try to get in. To clear the main line re- 
duce steam pressure, wrap waste or overalls, or 
such like around the throttle stem, to get into your 
terminal, going light. 

80. Describe the location of release port in the 
balance valve, and what it is for? 

A. It is located in the center of the exhaust 
cavity. Its use is to allow any steam that escapes 
by the packing strips to pass into the exhaust port 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 173 

and pass out to the atmosphere. If it was not for 
this the valve would be unbalanced in the event of 
a slight valve strip leakage. 

81. What would you do in case equalizer stand 
broke on an eight-wheel engine, and it clamped the 
reach rod between the equalizer and boiler so you 
could not move your engine? 

A. Take out the pin to reach rod at tumbling 
shaft arm slack off on the counterbalance spring. 
Work the engine with a light throttle to get into 
your terminal. 

81a. Is the Baker Gear a direct or an indirect 
motion? 

A. It is direct, going ahead for an insided ad- 
mission and indirect backing up, and just the oppo- 
site for the outside admission type. 

82b. What are the advantages of the Baker Gear 
over other valve gears? 

A. It is an outside gear having no links or ec- 
centrics. The bearings are all pins and bushings, 
which makes it very easy to repair. It is also 
standard, regardless of size or class of engine. 

81c. What means are provided to keep the gear 
properly lubricated? 

A. All bearings are provided with a pocket or 
cavity cast in casting, which does away with the 
use of oil cups. 

8id. What parts of the Baker Gear take the 



174 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

place of the link which is used by the Stephenson 
or Walschaert motion? 

A. The radius bars and reverse yoke. 

8ie. What relation to the main pin is the eccen- 
tric crank set to? 

A. The ecentric crank always follows the main 
pin. 

8if. Should the ecentric rod or eccentric crank 
break, how is the engine put in condition to pro- 
ceed? 

A. The disabled side can have lap and lead 
travel and a port opening equal to the lead for all 
cutoffs. First block the bell crank by using a U 
bold (which should be provided) in the holes placed 
in the gear frame for this purpose. Throwing re- 
verse lever in mid-gear will help to get bell crank 
in position to block. Second, reverse lever in mid- 
gear will help to get bell crank in position to block. 
Take down broken parts. Third, knock out 
back pin of short reach rod and throw reverse yoke 
in forward motion against gear frame. 

8ig. What is done should a gear connection rod 
break? 

A. Do the same as for a broken eccentric rod or 
crank. 

8ih. What is done should the upper part of gear 
connection rod break? 

A. If break is close to the middle pin, do the 



s 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 175 

same as for a broken ecentric rod and also tie lower 
end of gear connection rod to keep it from swing- 
ing. If break is near the top and below the jaw, 
first block the bell crank and wire the connection 
rod fast to radius bars. If break is through top 
jaAv, do the same as for broken eccentric rod. 

8ii. What is done should a radius bar break? 

A. Do the same as for broken eccentric rod. 

8ij. If the horizontal arm of bell crank should 
break? 

A. Same as broken eccentric rod. 

81 k. What is done should the vertical arm or 
bell crank break? 

A. T.ake down union link combination lever and 
valve rod, then block valve over ports by using set 
screw in valve stem crosshead provided for that 
purpose. 

81L Should you break crosshead arm or union 
link, what yould 3^011 do? 

A. If rod be provided to secure lower end of com- 
bination lever to guide yoke, remove broken parts 
and proceed with full train,, working engine at long 
cutoff. Otherwise would remove broken p,arts, 
combination lever and valve rod, cover ports and 
proceed on one side. 

81m. What do you do if a union link should 
break ? 

A. Same as for a broken crosshead arm. 



176 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

8in. What is done if a combination lever should 
break? 

A. Tie combination lever plumb s,ame as for a 
broken crosshead arm, if it is possible. If not pos- 
sible, take down the combination lever and valve 
rod and cover the ports. 

810. What is done if a valve rod breaks? 
A. Take down the broken parts and cover ports, 
leaving the rest of the gear intact. 

8ip. What is done if a reverse yoke breaks? 

A. If lugs for holding reach rod break, block 
yoke securely at whatever cutoff you wish to work 
the engine and take down the short reach rod. If 
break is below the lugs, do the same as for broken 
eccentric rod. 

8iq. What do you do if reach rod should break? 

A. If short reach rod breaks, block the yoke cut- 
off desired and wire fast so it cannot move. If main 
reach rod breaks, block between tumbling shaft arm 
and crosstie brace, wiring same securely. 

8ir. What is done if the engine breaks down 
other than valve gear? 

A. In this case do the same as for any other 
valve gear. 

202. How could you fill dead engine with no steam 
or pump to use for this purpose? 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 177 

A. I would block the relief and by-pass valves 
closed them, shut off all valves except throttle valve 
to the injectors. Tow the engine along slowly, caus- 
ing a vacuum to be formed in the boiler. Open the 
throttle valve. This will draw the water through the 
injector into the boiler. 

203. To put a dead engine into the engine house 
how could it be done? 

A. By closing the cylinder cocks and other valves, 
open the throttle, put the lever in the back gear, and 
then run the engine ahead until you pump up about 
70 or 80 pounds of air, being particular to close the 
throttle when the engine is brought to a standstill. 
The air pressure obtained will be sufficient to place 
the engine on the turntable and back it into the en- 
gine house. Should it be a short track, it could be 
done by running forward and back, closing throttle 
and changing the position of the reverse lever ; that 
is, it must be kept opposite to the direction in which 
the engine is running, which is now traveling toward 
the open port, compresses the air into the steam chest, 
and when the throttle valve is open it flows up hrough 
the steam passages in the cylinder saddle through 
branch pipes, dry pipe, throttle pipe to the boiler. 

203. Do you know any other method of moving 
engines by compressed air? • 

A. Yes. A flue blower hose could be attached to 



178 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

the relief valves on small engines and successfully 
move off from a turntable into the engine house. 

205. Has this been done? 
A. Yes, and with success. 

206. Explain how this air pressure is obtained. 

A. When the engine is running forward with the 
lever in the back gear, the exhaust cavity of the valve 
connects the steam port with the exhaus port, the 
piston traveling back draws the air down through the 
exhaust base through the exhaust passage and port 
through the steam port into the cylinder. When the 
piston starts back the steam port is opened and the 
piston forces the air contained in the cylinder into the 
steam chest and into the boiler through the steam 
and dry pipes. 

90. How would insufficient lubrication on valves 
and cylinders be detected? How would it affect the 
working of an engine? 

A. It would cause the lever to jump and reduce 
the power of the engine owing to the excessive fric- 
tion. 

91. What is important to observe in lubricating an 
engine ? 

A. Having oil holes clear and packing in the oil 
cellars in good condition and against the journal lu- 
bricators should be started before air pumps are 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 179 

started, and should be set before the train gets under 
way. 

82. What should be considered ,a good oil per- 
formance with various classes of engines? 

Standard 8-wheel engine with 18-inch cylinders 
should make 90 to no miles to the pint of valve 
oil, and 50 to 70 miles to the pint of engine oil, 
using the Franklin driving box lubricator. Mogul 
freight engine 19x26 cylinders should make 
75 to 90 miles per pint of valve oil and 45 to 
60 miles per pint of engine oil, using Franklin 
driving box lubricator. Consolidation engines 20 
x 30 cylinders should make 65 to 85 miles per pint 
of valve oil and 40 to 50 miles per pint of engine 
oil with Franklin driving box club lubricator. 

83. What rule can be laid down in computing 
the valve oil allowed for various classes of engines? 

A. Freight service, a 19-inch cylinder, should 
have an allowance of 85 miles for one pint for each 
inch of cylinder diameter increase over this, sub- 
tract 10 miles and the result will show what the 
engine should and will do under proper manage- 
ment. For example, to make this answer, clear 
19-inch cylinder 85 miles per pint, 20-inch cylinder, 
1 inch increase in diameter, reduce miles which 
will be 75 miles; 21-inch cylinder, 65 miles, etc. 

84. What is the number of drops in 3 pints 
of valve oil? 



180 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. There are 19,800 drops of oil in 3 pints of 
valve oil. 

85. How many drops in 2 pints of valve oil." 

A. There are 13,200 drops in 2 pints of valve 
oil. 

86. How many drops in one pint of valve oil? 
A. There are about 6,600 drops in one pint of 

valve oil. 

87. How many drops should the lubricator de- 
liver to each cylinder per minute in the various 
types of engines? 

A. Eighteen-inch standard engines 5 to 7 to 
each cylinder and 2 air pump per minute. Nine- 
teen-inch Mogul freight and passenger engines 5 
to 8 drops per minute per cylinder with 2 air 
pumps and 3 drops per minute, using one air pump 
2 drops per minute. Twenty-inch consolidated en- 
gines 6 to 9 drops per minute per cylinder, using 
2 air pumps, or 1 11-inch air pump 3 drops per min- 
ute 9 1-2 air pumps, 3 drops per minute. Twenty- 
one-inch consolidated engines 7 to 9 drops per 
minute per cylinder, using 1, 11-inch air pump, or 
2 to 9 1-2-inch air pumps, 3 drops per minute. 

88. How many hours would an engine run in 
the first case ,an 18-inch standard engine run per 
minute of valve oil? 

A. It would run 9 hours. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 



ISI 



89. At 20 miles per hour average, how many 
miles to the pint would be made? 

A. One hundred and eighty miles to the pint. 

89. Name some of the defects of lubricators? 

A. Decrease in Rate of Feed. — A decrease in the 
rate of feed may be due to any one of these causes : 

First : Lack of condensation or steam bound re- 
sulting from throttling the boiler or steam valve. 

To correct: Keep both valves wide open while 
lubricator is in operation. 

Second : Dirt carried over into the condenser of 
lubricator from boiler and passing down the water 
tube will gradually accumulate and reduce the 
size of water passage, decreasing the .amount of 
water admitted to oil reservoir ,thus displacing 
a smaller amount of oil and decreasing rate of feed. 

To correct : Close all feeds and water valves. 
Open drain cock and allow .about half a pint of 
water to drain off. Close drain cock and open water 
valve quickly. The condenser pressure w T ill then 
force this sediment into the bottom of the lubrica- 
tor, where it should be allowed to remain until the 
lubricator is empty of oil. It can then be blown 
out in the usual manner. If this sediment is al- 
lowed to remain in the water pass.age too long it 
may solidify so that it cannot be removed by blow- 
ing out, in which case it should be reported so that 



1 82 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

the obstruction may be bored or cleaned out by a 
wire. 

Irregularity in Rate of Feed. — Irregularity in the 
rate of feed occurs only in feeds to valves and 
cylinders and is invariably owing to enlarged choke 
openings. 

To correct: Examine the choke openings and if 
they have become enlarged beyond the limit re- 
quired by the particular type of lubricator in use, 
have them replaced with chokes of proper diameter. 

Irregular Feed to Air Pumps. — If feed to air 
pump or pumps stops and the oil passages are clean 
it is ,an indication that the choke in air pump oil 
pipe connection is clogged. 



CHAPTER VII. 

Air Brake Examination Questions. 

i. What trains is the L Triple used on? 

A. High-speed passenger trains. 

2. Explain some of the improved features of 
the L triple valve. 

A. It has quick service, high emergency maintain- 
ing feature and quick recharging feature. It has no 
piping to be taken off when detaching from the brake 
cylinder. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 183 

3. Explain the graduated release of the L triple. 
A. By this device it is possible to let the brake off, 

gradually making a smoother stop in long or short 
trains. 

4. Explain how a brake is graduated off with the 
valve. 

A. There are two reservoirs with this equipment ; 
one is called the auxiliary and the other a supple- 
mentary reservoir. The supplementary reservoir be- 
ing the larger. In ordinary service this reservoir 
(supplementary) is not used. 

When graduating off the brake the brake valve 
handle should be moved to running position for about 
4 or 5 seconds and carried back to lap. In doing this we 
charge the brake pipe enough to move the triple pis- 
ton to release position and the slide valve opens the 
communication to the atmosphere; in addition to this 
opens a communication between the supplementary 
and auxiliary reservoirs. The air in the supple- 
mentary reservoir now feeds into the auxiliary reser- 
voir and raises its pressure until it exceeds the brake 
pipe pressure. This causes the triple piston to move 
to lap position, closing the exhaust port, allowing only 
a portion of the air to escape. The number of gradua- 
tions should be regulated by the speed and the extent 
of cylinder pressure obtained. 

5. Explain the emergency application with the L 
valve. 



1 84 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. The L valve acts similar to the K in venting 
the brake pipe into the brake cylinder. In addition to 
this it opens up a direct connection between both sup- 
plementary and auxiliary reservoirs, and the combined 
pressures equalize with the brake cylinder, by which 
a higher brake cylinder pressure is derived than can 
be had with the ordinary high speed equipment. 

6. What pressure is the safety valve set at? 

A. For service applications cylinder pressure is 
set at sixty-two pounds. 

7. How should the brake valve be used on a five 
or six-car train when releasing? 

A. Great many roads recommend using running 
position only for trains of six cars or less? 

8. Why is this? 

A. Because the driver brake does not release when 
in full release position and the slack runs up to the 
engine causing severe shocks. 

9. Is there any danger of the triple valves not re- 
leasing on these cars by using the running position for 
release? 

A. Not much on such a short train. The slide 
valve feed valve gives a good generous flow of air in 
such a short train. 

10. How quick should the high speed reducing 
valve reduce the pressure after an emergency appli- 
cation is made? 

A. It should reduce the brake cylinder pressure 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 185 

from 85 pounds to 60, which is the adjusting pressure 
of the high speed reducing valve in about 26 or 27 
seconds. 

NUMBER FIVE EQUIPMENT. 

11. How may the No. 5 equipment be distin- 
guished from the No. 6? 

A. By the following method : First, the No. 6 
has the Duplex independent air gauge, showing 
brake pipe and brake cylinder pressures. Second, 
the reducing valve connection enters the indepen- 
dent valve at the side with the No. 6 and at the 
bottom with the No. 5. Third, the No. 5 has but 
three pipes to the independent valve, while the No. 
6 has four. Fourth, the No. 6 has a train pipe 
branch below the cut-out cock leading to the 
duplex air gauge while the No. 5 has not. The No. 

5 has a double cut-out cock on train pipe, the No. 

6 has the straight cock. By these methods the Xo. 

5 and No. 6 can be distinguished at a glance. 

12. What is the greatest advantage of the No. 

6 distributing valve over the No. 5? 

A. When using an emergency application with 
the No. 5, we use the application chamber, with the 
No. 6 we do not use the application chamber, but 
the application cylinder only. Supposing with the 
No. 5 a hose had busted or the conductor's valve 
opened, and both brake valves in running position, 



1 86 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

with the valves in this position there is a direct 
opening from the application chamber to the atmos- 
phere. Now with the No. 5 the engine brake will 
release while the train brakes are applied, providing 
the valve is left in this position. With the No. 6 
this cannot happen when an application like the 
above is caused, because the .application chamber is 
cut out on the No. 6 distributing valve by the equal- 
izing slide valve. 

13. What should be done in case one of the 
swing joints between the engine and the tender 
(brake pipe fitting) should become broken? 

A. Cut out the tender brake at the distributing 
valve, take down the broken pipe, next disconnect 
the brake cylinder pipes, connect them to the fitting 
on the tender and engine that were used by the 
brake pipe. This will give use of the train brakes, 
otherwise you would lose the entire train brake 
and could only use the driver brake on the engine. 

14. What is liable to result if brake pipe should 
become broken between engine and tender; that 
is, how may the distributing valve act, with the 
No. 5? _ 

A. Since there will be a sudden reduction on 
the plain side of the equalizing piston the equaliz- 
ing valve will move back so far that the main reser- 
voir pressure which passes to the safety valve dur- 
ing an emergency application will have free access 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 187 

to the application chamber, then when the brake 
pipe is cut out at the brake valve, the brake will 
remain applied, and cannot be released without cut- 
ting out the main reservoir supply. Should the dis- 
tributing valve act thus, the only way this could 
be remedied is to take off the equilizing piston cap 
(which will be the lower one), push the equalizing 
piston back as far as it will go. This will close 
the port which allows the main reservoir pressure 
to pass in to application chamber. This should be 
done in case the brake down could not be remedied 
as stated in the last question, and should you pro- 
ceed in this way, it will give you the use of the in- 
dependent valve only. 

15. What should be done in case the brake 
cylinder pipe becomes broken? 

A. Cut out the brake cylinder at the distrib- 
uting valve. 

16. How may a broken brake cylinder pipe be 
detected? 

A. When applying the brake the main reservoir 
pressure will drop and the pump will start to work 
faster. 

17. How do you account for the great reduction 
in main reservoir pressure? 

A. When the air in the pressure chamber passes 
to application chamber and moves the application 
piston over, it will stay in that position (application 



1 88 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

position) until the pressures are balanced and then 
the graduating stem and spring moves it to lap 
position, cutting out main reservoir pressure to 
brake cylinder. Now let us assume that there is a 
broken pipe, since the main reservoir supply and 
brake cylinder pipes are 1-2 inch, it will be impos- 
sible to build up a pressure on the brake cylinder 
side of the application piston. Therefore the appli- 
cation slide valve will remain in application position 
and allow main reservoir pressure to pass directly 
to atmosphere via the broken pipe, which will cause 
a great reduction in the main reservoir pressure. 

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
ON THE NO. 6 E. T. EQUIPMENT. 

18. Name the different pipes and their connec- 
tions used with the No. 6 E. T. equipment. 

A. Main reservoir pipe, which extends from the 
main reservoir to the automatic brake valve, with 
branches to the distributing, feed and reducing 
valves. Train pipe, which extends from the front 
of the engine to the rear of tender, with branches 
to the automatic brake valve, distributing valve, 
feed valve pipe, which extends from the feed valve 
to the automatic brake valve. Reducing valve pipe, 
which extends from the reducing valve to the inde- 
pendent brake valve. Brake cylinder pipes, which 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 189 

extends from the distributing valve to each brake 
cylinder on locomotive and tender. The application 
cylinder pipe, which extends from the distributing 
valve to the independent brake valve, with a branch 
to automatic brake valve. Pump Governor pipes, 
which extend from either the main reservoir or 
main reservoir pipe, to the governor when single 
governor head is used. When the S. F. type of pump 
governor is used, from main reservoir, cut out cock 
to maximum head, and from feed valve pipe and auto- 
matic brake valve to excess head. 

19. How many different pressure are used in 
operating the E. T. equipment? 

A. Eight. 

20. What are they? 

A. Atmosphere, main reservoir, feed valve pipe, 
equalizing reservoir, pressure chamber, application 
chamber and cylinder, and brake cylinder pressures. 

21. How many pounds pressure to the square 
inch in the atmosphere? 

A. Fourteen and seven-tenths pounds at sea 
level. 

22. Where does main reservoir pressure begin 
and end? 

A. At the discharge valves of the pump, and 
ends at the reducing, feed, application and auto- 
matic rotary valves. 



igo PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

23. The feed valve pipe pressure begins and 
ends at what point? 

A. At the feed valve, and ends at the automatic 
brake valve. 

24. The brake pipe pressure begins and ends 
where? 

A. At the rotary if automatic brake valve, and 
at the plane side of equalizing piston. Also at plane 
side of all triple pistons in train. 

25. Equalizing reservoir pressure 'begins and 
ends where? 

A. At the automatic rotary valve, and ends on 
top of equalizing piston and in equalizing reservoir. 

26. Where does pressure chamber pressure be- 
gin? 

A. At the slide valve of equalizing piston, and 
ends in the pressure and equalizing slide valve 
chambers. 

27. Application chamber and cylinder pressure 
begins and ends where? 

A. At the equalizing slide valve, and ends in 
the application chamber cylinder and cylinder pipes. 

28. Brake cylinder pressure begins and ends 
where? 

A. At the face of application slide valve, and 
ends in the brake cylinders. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 191 

AUTOMATIC BRAKE VALVE. 

29. How many positions has the handle of the 
automatic brake valve? 

A. Six. 

30. Name them. 

A. Release, running, holding, lap, service and 
emergency. 

31. In release position what ports are open? 

A. From main reservoir to train pipe and cham- 
ber D, and feed valve pipe to atmosphere through 
warning port; also from main reservoir to excess 
pressure head of pump governor, when S. F. type 
of governor is used. 

32. Can the engine and tender brakes be released 
in the release position with the automatic brake 
valve ? 

A. No. 

33. Why is this? 

A. The connection between the application cyl- 
inder and the atmosphere is closed by the rotary 
valve of the automatic brake valve. 

34. In running position what ports are open? 
A. From feed valve pipe to train pipe and from 

train pipe to chamber D, from main reservoir to 
excess pressure head of the pump governor, when 
S. F. type of governor is used. 



1 92 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

35. Can the engine and tender brakes be released 
in running position with the automatic brake valve? 

A. Yes, providing the independent brake valve 
is in running position, the application cylinder is 
connected to the atmosphere through the rotary 
of the automatic brake valve. 

36. In holding position what ports are open? 
A. The same as in running position, except that 

connection between application cylinder and the 
atmosphere is now closed by the rotary valve of 
the automatic brake valve. 

37. In lap position what ports are open and 
trace the air? 

A. All ports are closed except main reservoir; 
air can now pass from the top of rotary to feed 
valve pipe. 

38. In service position what ports are open and 
trace the air? 

A. From chamber D to the atmosphere, and from 
train pipe to atmosphere through the equalizing 
discharge valve ; also from top of rotary to feed 
valve pipe. 

39. In emergency position what ports are open 
and trace the air? 

A. From chamber D and train pipe to the atmos- 
phere, and from main reservoir to application cyl- 
inder through the rotary valve ; also, from top of 
rotary to feed valve pipe. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 193 

40. How many operating valves are in the E. T. 
automatic brake valve? 
A. Two. 
4. Name them. 
A. Rotary valve and equalizing discharge valve. 

42. Where is the feed valve located? 

A. On a bracket, to which is attached the main 
reservoir and feed valve pipes. 

43. What pressure does it control? 

A. Train pipe pressure when brake valve handle 
is in running or holding position. 

44. How many air gauges do we have in a loco- 
motive cab when using the E. T. equipment? 

A. Two duplex gauges. 

45. Name the pipe connections to each gauge 
hand. 

A. On the large gauge the red hand is con- 
nected to main reservoir; the black hand to chamber 
D pressure. On the small gauge the red hand to brake 
cylinder pressure ; the black hand to train pipe pres- 
sure. 

INDEPENDENT BRAKE VALVE. 

46. How many positions has the handle of the 
independent brake valve? 

A. Five. 

47. Name them. 



I 9 4 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. Release, running, lap, slow and quick appli- 
cation positions. - 

48. In release position what ports are open and 
trace the air? 

A. From the application cylinder to the atmos- 
phere; also, reducing valve pipe to the atmosphere 
through the warning port. 

49. In running position what ports are open and 
trace the air? 

A. From the distributing valve reservoir pipe 
to the U-shaped pipe. 

50. In lap position what ports are open and trace 
the air? 

A. All ports are closed. • 

51. In application position what ports are open 
and trace the air? 

A. From reducing valve pipe to application cyl- 
inder pipe. 

52. What is the normal position of the indepen- 
dent brake valve? 

A. Running position. 

53. If the brakes are applied with the automatic 
brake valve, can they be released with the inde- 
pendent brake valve? 

A. Yes, by using the release position of the in- 
dependent brake valve. 

54. If the brakes are released by the automatic 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 



195 



brake valve, can they be applied by the independent 
brake valve? 

A. Yes, independent of the train brakes. 

55. How many pounds pressure can be obtained 
in the engine brake cylinder using the independent 
brake valve? 

A. Forty-five pounds. 

56. What controls this pressure? 
A. A reducing valve. 

57. This reducing valve controls the pressure in 
what other line of pipe on passenger engines? 

A. The signal pipe. 

58. Why does not the signal whistle blow when 
the brakes are applied with the independent brake 
valve? 

A. A non-return check valve in the signal line 
pipe prevents the signal line pressure from being 
reduced. 

59. Where is this check valve located? 

A. On the air signal pipe as close to reducing 
valve pipe as convenient. 

DISTRIBUTING VALVE. 

60. What takes the place of auxiliary reservoir 
and triple valves on engine? 

A. The distributing valve. 

61. How many chambers does the reservoir 
contain ? 



196 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. Two ; the pressure ,and application chambers- 

62. Which is the larger? 
A. The pressure chamber. 

63. How many pipes are connected to the distrib- 
uting valve reservoir. 

A. Five. 

64. What are they? 

A. Main reservoir supply, application cylinder, 
distributing valve release, brake pipe branch, and 
brake cylinder pipes. 

65. what pipe connection is at top of reservoir 
on right side looking at side view? 

A. Brake cylinder pipe. 

66. What pipe connection is at bottom on right 
side? 

A. The branch from brake pipe. 

67. What pipe connection is at top of reservoir 
on left side? 

A. Main reservoir supply to distributing valve. 

68. What pipe connection is in centre of reser- 
voir, left side? 

A. Application cylinder pipe. 

69. What pipe is at the bottom of reservoir on 
left side? 

A. Distributing valve release pipe. 

70. How many pistons are in the distributing 
valve? Name them. 

A. Two, equalizing and application piston. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 197 

71. What are the duties of the equalizing piston? 

A. To open and close the communication be- 
tween the brake pipe and pressure chamber, and 
move the slide and graduating valve. 

J2. What are duties of the graduating valve? 

A. To measure the air from the pressure cham- 
ber to the application chamber and cylinder in ser- 
vice application. Also in conjunction with the slide 
valve to open communication between the applica- 
tion cylinder and safety valve. 

73. What are the duties of the slide valve? 

A. To open the ports between the pressure 
chamber and application chamber and cylinder when 
applying the brakes, between application chamber 
and cylinder to distributing valve release pipe when 
equalizing piston is in release position. Also to con- 
nect the graduating valve from application cylinder 
to safety valve. 

74. Is there an equalizing piston graduating 
spring in the No. 6 distributing valve? 

A. Yes. 

75. What are the duties of this graduating 
spring? 

A. To prevent the equalizing piston from mov- 
ing to the emergency position when a service appli- 
cation of the brake is made. 

76. What are the duties of the application piston? 



198 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. To operate the application and exhaust 
valves. 

yy. What are the duties of the application valve? 
A. To open and close communication between 
the application chamber and brake cylfnders. 

78. What are the duties of the exhaust valve? 

A. To open and close communication from the 
brake cylinder to the atmosphere. 

79. Where do the engine brake cylinders receive 
their supply of air from ? 

A. The main reservoir. 

80. What cylinder must be supplied with air 
pressure before the brake cylinder pressure can be 
obtained? 

A. Application cylinder. 

81. How is air admitted to the application cylin- 
der? 

A. From the pressure chamber when applying 
the brakes with the automatic brake valve, from the 
reducing valve pipe when applying with the indepen- 
dent brake valve, and from main reservoir when 
automatic brake valve is in emergency position. 

82. If the application cylinder contains ten 
pounds pressure, how many pounds should be in the 
brake cylinders? 

A. Ten pounds, about. 

83. What effect will a brake cylinder leak have? 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 199 

A. No effect on brake cylinder pressure as long 
as main reservoir pressure can be maintained. 

84. Does the brake cylinder pressure vary in this 
equipment with long or short travel? 

A. No; the pressure in application cylinder cham- 
ber automatically controls brake cylinder pressure 
regardless of the piston travel. 

85. If with seventy pounds in pressure chamber 
and nothing in application chamber and cylinder the 
pressure in these chambers are allowed to equalize, 
what pressure will they equalize at? 

A. About fifty pounds. 

86. How many pounds pressure can be obtained 
in the brake cylinders when using the independent 
brake valve? 

A. Forty-five pounds. 

87. Why can we only obtain forty-five pounds? 

A. The reducing valve which controls the pres- 
sure in application cylinder when using independent 
brake valve is set at forty-five pounds. 

88. Where does the application cylinder receive 
its supply of air from when the automatic brake 
valve is in emergency position? 

A. From the main reservoir and pressure cham- 
ber. 

89. What pressure will be maintained in the ap- 
plication cylinder with the automatic brake valve 
handle in the emergence position? 



200 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. Whatever pressure the safety valve is set at, 
except when using the high speed brake, when sev- 
enty-five pounds will be maintained. 

90. What pressure is the safety valve set at? 
A. Sixty-eight pounds. 

91. In what position of the equalizing piston is 
communication cut off from the safety valve? 

A. Service lap position. 

92. If the safety valve is held off its seat from any 
cause, what effect will it have on the operation of the 
brakes? 

A. It may allow the pressure to escape from ap- 
plication cylinder to atmosphere as fast as it enters, 
which would prevent you from obtaining any brake 
cylinder pressure. 

93. When double heading, can the brakes be ap- 
plied and released on the engine not operating the 
train brakes, independent of the one which is operat- 
ing the brakes? 

A. Yes, by the use of the independent brake 
valve. 

94. Can the engine brake be applied on engines 
not having main reservoir pressure? 

A. No; we must have main reservoir pressure. 

95. How is the main reservoir pressure supplied 
to dead engines and engines with disabled pumps on 
some roads? 

A. By a cut-out cock, check valve and choke 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 201 

fitting, which forms a by-pass from the brake pipe to 
main reservoir pipe. The tension of check valve 
spring being twenty pounds allows a pressure in 
main reservoir twenty pounds less than carried in 
the brake pipe. 

96. What will cause the brake cylinder pressure 
to increase when brake valve and equalizing portion 
of distributing valve is lapped after making a partial 
service reduction? 

A. A leaky independent rotary valve, a leaky 
equalizing slide or graduating valve, or a leaky dis- 
tributing valve gasket. 

97. What will cause the brake cylinder pressure 
to decrease after brake valve is lapped? 

A. Any leak to atmosphere from application 
chamber or cylinder. 

98. What will cause a continual blow at auto- 
matic brake valve exhaust, when handle is in run- 
ning position? 

A. Any leak from main reservoir or pressure 
chamber to application cylinder or chamber. 

99. How can you tell if the leak is from main 
reservoir or pressure chamber? 

A. By closing the cut-out cock in main reservoir 
supply to distributing valve; if blow stops, it was a 
main reservoir leak; if not, it is a pressure chamber 
leak. 

100. Can the engine brake be applied with the 



202 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

automatic brake valve if the independent brake 
valve is in release position? 

A. No; there is direct communication from the 
application cylinder through the independent brake 
valve. 

101. How can you tell the application valve is 
leaking? 

A. You will have a blow at brake cylinder ex- 
haust when brake is released, and a variable blow 
when the brake is applied. 

102. How can you tell when the exhaust valve is 
leaking? 

A. It will have a constant blow when the brake 
is applied. 

103. What would it be necessary to do in case 
the brake cylinder pipe broke? 

A. If close to the distributing valve chamber, 
close cut-out cock in main reservoir supply to dis- 
tributing valve. If beyond the brake cylinder pipe 
cut-out cock, close the cock and use the tender 
b^ake. If in pipe leading to tender brake, beyond 
cut-out cock, close the cock, which will allow you to 
use the engine brake. 

104. What would it be necessary to do in case 
the branch from brake pipe broke at distributing 
valve? 

A. Plug brake pipe by cutting out. You can 
now apply the engine brake with the independent 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 203 

brake valve, and in the emergency position of the 
automatic brake valve. 

105. What would it be necessary to do if the 
main reservoir supply pipe broke? 

A. Cut it out or plug it. You would not have 
the use of your engine brake, either independent 
or automatic. 

106. What would it be necessary to do if the ap- 
plication pipe broke? 

A. Plug up leak at the distributing valve. You 
would now have the use of the automatic brake 
valve only. 

107. What would it be necessary to do if you 
broke the distributing valve exhaust pipe? 

A. Proceed with it broken. You would only 
lose the holding position of the automatic brake 
valve. 

108. What would it be necessary to do if you 
broke reducing valve pipe? 

A. If on an engine not equipped with signal line, 
slack adjusting nut on reducing valve, which will set 
the regulating valve, and stop the leak. If on an 
engine equipped with signal line, and pipe is broken 
between signal line and independent brake valve, 
plug the pipe so as to get the use of the signal line 
But if broken back of signal line, slack adjusting nut 
the same as on engine having no signal line. 



204 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

"SF" PUMP GOVERNOR. 

109. How many governor heads are used with 
the "SF" 3 or 4 type of pump governor? 

A. Two, the maximum and excess heads. 

no. How can you tell the maximum from the 
excess head? 

A. The excess head has two pipe connections 
and the maximum one. 

in. Name the pipe connections to each head. 

A. Main reservoir pressure only is connected 
to the maximum head, and main reservoir pressure 
is connected to excess head underneath diaphragm, 
when automatic brake valve is in release, running or 
holding positions, and feed valve pipe pressure is 
connected above the diaphragm. 

112. At what pressure should the tension of the 
spring in each head be set at? 

A. In the maximum head, 130 pounds; in the ex- 
cess head to whatever difference in pressure is de- 
sired between the brake pipe and main reservoir 
pressure. 

113. When changing from ordinary quick action 
to high speed brake when using the "SF" type of 
pump governor, is it necessary to readjust the spring 
in excess pressure head of governor? 

A. No, as the adjustment in excess governor 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 205 

head will give the desired amount of excess pressure. 
It is recommended to set the maximum head at 
about 133 or 135 pounds with this governor so to 
prevent the maximum head from opening except 
when on lap position. That is when using high 
speed brake. This gives the excess head control of 
main reservoir pressure in all positions except lap 
service and emergency. 

FUNCTIONS OF THE K TRIPLE VALVE, 

114. Why should any improvement in air brake 
apparatus be necessary? 

A. Modern conditions have created new braking 
problems. The old and well-known (Type H) quick 
action freight triple valve was designed to meet the 
requirements of the time when 50-car trains, 30-ton 
capacity cars, and moderate speed were maximum 
conditions. But the increased train lengths, speed, 
and car capacities of the present day have demanded 
certain modifications to meet these anticipated re- 
quirements. 

115. What new functions are possessed by the 
Type K triple valve in addition to those of the old 
style quick action triple valve? 

A. 1st. What is known as quick service. 2d. 
What is known as uniform release. 3d. What is 
known as uniform recharge. 



206 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

116. Why is it necessary to add these features to 
the triple valve? 

A. The quick-service feature was added to bring 
about a more certain, more uniform, and quicker ap- 
plications of the brakes in s^x vice application on long* 
trains. To make this necessity more clear, it is nec- 
essary to have in mind the. following: The rate of 
brake pipe reduction for service applications with 
the old brake system is determined by the exhaust 
port in the brake valve. As this is constant, it is 
plain that the longer the train the slower will be the 
rate at which pressure in the brake pipe will reduce, 
and as the air cannot flow to the brake cylinder any 
more rapidly than brake pipe pressure is being re- 
duced, it is plain that with long trains only a very 
slow application of the brake takes place, even when 
it applies at all. This slow rate of brake pipe reduc- 
tion not only results in a slow application but many 
times in the failure of individual brakes to apply. 
This is brought about by the fact that when the pres- 
sure is reducing very slowly in the brake pipe it can 
feed back at the same rate from the auxiliary reser- 
voir, through triple feed port into the brake pipe, 
and thus there is no difference of pressure created to 
move the triple valve to application position. An- 
other reason for failure to apply is that even though 
the triple-valve moves to service position the air 
flows so slowly from the auxiliary reservoir to the 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 207 

brake cylinder that it passes through the leakage 
grooves in the brake cylinder or pasi the packing 
leather to the atmosphere, and therefore the pres- 
sure does not build up in the cylinder sufficient to 
force the piston out and the shoes against the 
wheels. Furthermore, to bring about proper opera- 
tion of the brakes in a long train not only should the 
brake pipe pressure be reduced as rapidly, but also 
as uniformly as possible. As it is impossible to in- 
crease the opening at the brake valve without in- 
creasing the likelihood of obtaining undesired quick 
action, and also as it would be certain to bring about 
a quicker and heavier brake application at the head 
end of the train than at the rear, with consequent 
shocks and danger of breaking in two on the recoil, 
it was found necessary to provide other and local 
means for reducing the brake pipe pressure more 
rapidly and uniformly so that these things would be 
avoided. These means exist in the quick-service 
feature of the triple valve, which consists of an open- 
ing from the brake pipe to the brake cylinder when 
triple valve is in service position, which port is sub- 
ject to graduation the same as the ordinary service 
port of the triple valve. From this it will be seen 
that when the reduction of the brake pipe pressure 
is commenced at the brake valve and the first triple 
valve reaches application position, a supplementary 
reduction of brake pipe pressure takes place at that 



2o8 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

triple valve, thus causing the more rapid application 
of the next triple valve; this in turn of the next one, 
and so on through the train, thus producing what 
may be termed serial application of the brakes. The 
application, therefore, is as certain and as rapid and 
free from shocks on a 50-car train with the K valve 
as it is on a 30-car train with the old triple. The 
uniform-release feature was added in order that the 
release of the rear end of the train might take place 
as rapidly as that at the head end of the train. It 
is well known that, when a release of the brakes is 
made, they commence to release at the head end 
first — in fact, the brakes at the head end are en- 
tirely released before those near the rear end com- 
mence to release; therefore the slack runs out, re- 
sulting in severe shocks and often in breaking the 
train in two. With the release at the head end re- 
tarded, i. e., taking place slower than with the old 
valve, a simultaneous or uniform release is brought 
about; thus the slack cannot run out and shocks and 
break-in-twos are avoided. Thus uniform-release 
feature consists of a spring placed on the auxiliary 
reservoir end of the triple valve, with a projecting 
stem which stops the triple valve slide valve in what 
is called full-release position (that is, in a position in 
which the exhaust port is fully opened), unless the 
pressure in the brake pipe is raised materially higher 
than that of the auxiliary reservoir. When the 



OX LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 209 

pressure in the brake pipe is increased about three 
pounds above that of the auxiliary reservoir the 
spring is compressed and the slide valve consequent- 
ly makes a further inward travel to retarded-re- 
lease position, partially closing the exhaust po ; and 
thereby making the release of brake cylinder press- 
ure slower than before. In a 50-car train or longer 
it is impossible to raise the brake pipe pressure three 
pounds higher than the auxiliary reservoir for more 
than thirty cars back in the train, even though the 
engineer holds the brake valve handle in full-release 
position; therefore, the brake cylinder exhaust is 
only retarded on the first thirty cars, those beyond 
that releasing as rapidly as with the old valve; but 
as those at the head end commence to release first 
and those at the rear end last, the result in a practi- 
cally uniform release with consequent lessening of 
the severity of shocks a~xc decrease in the num- 
ber of brake-in-twos; making it safer to release a 
train of fifty cars equipped with K triple valves at 
'low speed than a train of thirty cars equipped with 
the old valve. 

The uniform recharge feature was added to bring 
about a more uniform recharging of the brakes 
throughout the train. With the old type of valve the 
recharge at the head was much more rapid than at 
the rear because of the higher pressure at the head 
end when brakes were being released. This often 



210 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

brought about a reapplication of the brakes when the 
handle was returned to running position and was 
largely responsible for stuck brakes. Uniform re- 
charge lessens this very objectionable feature to a 
marked degree, and, in addition, if a re-application 
is made shortly after a release the brakes apply 
much more uniformly and certainly than is the case 
when the auxiliary reservoirs are charged much 
higher at the front than towards the rear of the train. 
This uniform recharge is brought about by decreas- 
ing the size of the charging port or grooves when 
the triple valve is in retarded-release position ; and 
as this can only be when the pressure in the brake 
pipe is higher than that in the auxiliary reservoir, it 
is seen that when the pressure is the highest the 
charging ports are the smallest, while when the 
pressure is the lowest, as at the rear end, the charg- 
ing ports are the largest; thus the recharge is more 
uniform because the high pressure will charge as 
quickly through a small port as the low pressure will 
through a large port. 

From the above it will be seen that certain unde- 
sirable features of the former valves have been over- 
come and the following additional features derived: 

(i) More uniform charging of the entire train, 
consequently more uniform cylinder pressure and 
application of the brakes. 

(2) Ability to remain in released position longer 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 211 

without overcharging the forward end of the train 
(avoiding the resultant re-application of the brakes 
due to back flow of air). 

(3) Greater volume and pressure of air flowing 
toward the rear end of the train. 

(4) Saving of air which would otherwise go to the 
auxiliary reservoir, then to the cylinders by re-appli- 
cation of the brake and to the atmosphere through 
the triple valves, this saving being due to the small 
charging ports preventing the overcharging of aux- 
iliaries. 

From the foregoing it is evident that the feature 
referred to is in reality a "uniform recharge'' rather 
than a retarded recharge, and while it is true that in 
very short trains the recharge would be retarded (as 
compared with valves having the maximum permis- 
sible feed grooves, but not as compared with those 
having the maximum size feed grooves), in long 
trains as a whole the recharge will be as rapid as at 
present, and when the retarded release feature which 
operates as an automatic retainer is considered, as 
well as the fact that a given reduction produces a 
greater retardation, an effective recharge is much 
more quickly accomplished. 

117. What is claimed for this valve? 

A. A much better control of the train by the en- 
gineer, shorter stops, reduction of shocks and brake- 



212 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

in-twos, greater freedom from undesired quick ac- 
tion and greatly reduced air consumption. 

118. What increase of brake cylinder pressure is 
obtained by use of the quick-service ports? 

A. About one pound higher equalization under 
equal conditions. 

119. Is the quick service feature operative with 
short trains? 

A. No. This feature automatically goes out of 
service whenever the brake pipe pressure is being 
reduced at the proper rate. 

120. Why is undesired quick action less likely 
with "K" valve than with the old? 

A. Because of the construction of the valves and 
due to the quick-service feature, which reduces the 
brake pipe pressure more uniformly. 

121. With this type of valve will not the release 
be slower with the short trains than is the case with 
the old type of valve? 

A. Yes, and at the first this may appear some- 
what objectionable. But w T hen the proper way to 
operate is understood these objections disappear, 
and it simply means release the brakes a little earlier 
than with the old type; and as the benefits obtained 
are so great and so necessary, this feature must be 
overlooked in view of the fact that much worse re- 
sults and delays on the road are unavoidable with 
the old type when long trains are being handled. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 213 

122. What will be the effect of releasing the 
brakes before coming to a stop with a 25 or 30-car 
train having only one or two Type K triple valves 
and these located near the rear end? 

A. With such short trains the danger of a brake- 
in-two in releasing practically disappears, as there is 
not enough slack to produce this effect. In such 
case even if one or two K triple valves were near the 
rear end and go to retarded release position it 
would not be objectionable: 

(1) Because of the short length of train as hereto- 
fore explained. 

(2) Because the effect would be no more undesir- 
able than that commonly existing on similar trains 
with uniform equipment throughout, but with the 
piston travel varying on the cars as it does in ordi- 
nary service. 

123. What will be the effect of releasing the 
brakes before coming to a stop with a 25 or 30-car 
train having only one or two Type K triple valves, 
and these located near the front end? 

A. These triple valves will go to Retarded Re- 
lease Position, but the effect would be beneficial in- 
stead of objectionable, since it would be the equiva- 
lent of holding the locomotive brakes applied while 
releasing the train brakes in order to keep the slack 
bunched and prevent the head cars from running 



214 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

away from those on the rear end and perhaps pull- 
ing the train in two. 

124. Cannot the brakes be released more quick- 
ly by only using the running position with short 
trains? 

A. Often, yes, but it is better to operate in the 
usual way; commencing the release earlier if it is 
desired to release and keep moving. 

125. How can the brake be most quickly released 
by means of the release valve on the auxiliary res- 
ervoir when there is air in the brake pipe? 

A. Reduce the auxiliary reservoir pressure slight- 
ly below brake pipe pressure, when the triple valve 
will go to release position but not to retarded re- 
lease Position, and the release will be as rapid as 
with H-type of valve. If the auxiliary reservoir is 
reduced much below the brake pipe the triple valve 
will go to retarded release position and the release 
will be slower. 

126. How should the brake be released when 
there is no air in the brake pipe? 

A. In the usual way, that is, by holding the re- 
lease valve open until all the air has escaped. 

127. How is the greater efficiency of the "K" 
valve accounted for when only such a slight final in- 
crease of cylinder pressure is obtained? 

A. 1st. The brakes apply in less time with long 
trains than with the old valves. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 215 

2nd. All brakes apply. 

3rd. The air flowing to the cylinders through the 
quick-service ports equals the displacement of the 
brake cylinder piston, therefore making the brake 
more effective for light reductions. 

128. How can you bleed off a K triple? 

A. Close the cut-out cock, which will allow both 
sides of the triple piston to become equalized in 
pressure and the retarding spring will force it to re- 
lease position. After it is released cut the valve in 
again slowly. 

129. How is the automatic brake applied? How 
released? 

A. By moving the brake valve to service posi- 
tion a reduction is made in chamber D and equaliz- 
ing reservoir. The brake pipe pressure then being 
greater on under side of the equalizing piston 
causes it to rise and opening the brake pipe exhaust 
causing a reduction in the brake pipe and the triple 
valves to move to application position. When the 
brake valve is placed in full release position there 
is a direct communication between the brake pipe 
and main reservoir through the rotary valve; this 
charges the brake pipe and forces triple valves to 
release position. 

130. How should the steam cylinder of the air 
pump be lubricated? 



216 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. By the lubricator and should receive from 2 
to 3 drops per minute. 

131. How should the air cylinder he lubricated? 
A. By valve oil through the cup provided for 

the purpose on the air cylinder. 

132. Is there anything else about the air pump 
to be lubricated? 

A. Yes, the piston rod. 

133. Whnat kind of oil only should be used 
about the pump? 

A. Valve oil. 

134. If the air pump stops, what should be done? 
A. Should it stop between stations I would try 

and make the next station on a local train and per- 
fectly tight brake pipe. After arriving would try 
to start it. 

135. How would you try to start it? 

A. Would shut the throttle valve off, reduce 
main reservoir pressure and open it up quickly 
again. I would also try to start the reverse valve 
by tapping it lightly. I would also, if necessary, 
take the plug out of the bottom cylinder head to 
see if the nuts were loose on the air piston rod. 

136. Why should not engine, or other light 
bodied oil be used in the air pump? 

A. Its flash point is too low; it would therefore 
burn and lose its lubricating quality. 

137. What are the positions of the Westing- 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 217 

house 1892 model brake valve handle? State what 
each is for? 

A. Full release running lap service and emer- 
gency. 

Full release to release the brakes running to get 
the use of the feed valve and excess pressure. 

Service for service application of the brake emer- 
gency for an emergency application. 

138. If the air pump makes a quick stroke one 
way and slow the other, what would be the cause? 
How could it be quickly determined which end of 
the air cylinder was defective? 

A. A broken or stuck air admission or discharge 
valve. Open the cylinder cocks to the pump the one 
that blows the least would indicate the defect is on 
the opposite side of the piston in the air cylinder. 
I could also tell the defective valve by holding my 
hand over the air strainer, noting the amount of air 
drawn at each end of the piston. The side drawing 
little or no air would indicate the defect was on 
that side of the air piston. 

139. How would you test for leaky air packing 
rings in the air cylinders? 

A. Cut out the main reservoir cock and note the 
speed of the pump. With no cut-out cock place the 
brake valve on lap after making sure that there are 
no pipes leaking and note the speed of the pump. 
Should it run at the rate of 6 to 10 strokes per minute 



2i8 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

or more it will be evident that the rings need renew- 
ing, the amount of leakage depending on the speed 
of the pump. 

140. How would you test for a main reservoir 
leak? 

A. Place the brake valve handle on lap, take a 
torch and examine all pipe fittings to the main res- 
ervoir. Also note condition of the seams and drip 
cock in the main reservoir. 

141. What equipment besides the air brake is 
main reservoir pressure used for? 

A.E The bell ringer, sand blower and water 
scoop. . 

142. What valve or valves does the main reser- 
voir pressure have to pass through to get into the 
brake pipe? 

A. The rotary and feed valves. 

143. Describe the passage of air after leaving the 
orake valve. 

A. Through the brake pipe to the plain side of 
the triple valves, through the feed ports in the triple 
piston to the auxiliary reservoir. 

144. Where does brake pipe pressure end? 
A. At the triple piston plain side. 

145. Where does the auxiliary reservoir pressure 
Degin? 

A. At the triple piston auxiliary side. 

146. What is the standard auxiliary reservoir 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 219 

pressure? What is the auxiliary reservoir pressure 
when using the high speed brake? 
A. Seventy pounds — no pounds. 

147. To what is the brake pipe connected under 
an engine, tender or car? 

A. The triple valve. 

148. To what is the triple valve connected? 
A. The auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinder. 

149. Where is the pressure stored for applying 
the automatic brake? Where is it stored for releas- 
ing? 

A. In the auxiliary reservoir. In the main res- 
ervoir. 

150. Does the main reservoir pressure increase 
as the brake is applied? 

A. With some equipments using the Duplex gov- 
ernor. 

151. How should a governor having two tops be 
adjusted? Explain how the pressure is increased 
when applying brakes with the Westinghouse 1892 
model valve. 

A. Place the brake valve handle on lap; this will 
give connection to the maximum head; set the max- 
imum head by its adjusting screw; set the excess 
head by setting the feed valve at brake pipe pressure, 
say no. Then have the brake valve on running po- 
sition, adjust the screw on the governor top to give 
20 pounds more than brake pipe. 



220 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

B. With this attachment there is used a duplex 
governor, one spring adjusted at 90 the other at no 
pounds, for the purpose of increasing main reser- 
voir capacity for releasing. The low tension gov- 
ernor head is piped direct into the feed valve port 
between the rotary valve seat and the feed valve. 
By moving the brake valve handle to lap cuts out 
the low pressure head and the pressure is released 
through the relief port in the governor, causing it 
to start. The high tension head is connected direct 
to the main reservoir. When the pressure reaches 
no pounds opens the pin valve and stops the 
pump, as explained in B. & M. examination. 

152. How long should the handle of the brake 
valve be held in release position when releasing 
brakes with a passenger train? With a freight 
train ? 

A. With the E. T. Equipment on a passenger 
train just for a second; to avoid shocks due to driver 
brake holding on. Some roads recommend using 
running position only with six cars or less. 

Freight trains according to their length generate 
until both hands equalize, moving to release for in- 
tervals of 3 to 5 seconds to avoid overcharge of train 
line on the head end. 

How is the brake power figured by the loco- 
motives brake cylinder and levers? 

Multiply the area of the brake cylinder by its 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 221 

pressure and then by the long end of the brake 
lever and divide by the distance from the point of 
the fulcum to the brake rod. For example : Take 
a 15-inch brake cylinder with E. T. Equipment in- 
dependent brake valve in application position, giv- 
ing 45 pounds brake cylinder pressure. The area 
of the brake cylinder in square inches is 177, about 
this multiplied by the pressure per square inch, 
which is 45, gives us 7,965 pounds; this multiplied 
by the long end of the brake lever, measured from 
the fulcum, for instance, say it is 20 inches. The 
total moment of force is now 7965x20, and say the 
short end of the lever is 8 inches from the center 
of the fulcum. The total force which gives us 
19,912 pounds. 

How could this power be used advantageously in 
the event of a broken cylinder head or similar de- 
fect, causing the engine to become stuck on the 
dead center? 

I have used a piece of rail passed between the 
spokes of the forward drivers, blocked up to the 
brake levers, and letting out on the adjusting 
screws on the brake gear, applied the brake and 
the force of the two driver brake cylinders pulled 
the engine off from the center. 

153. What would you do if you did overcharge a 
train when standing? What if running? 

A. I would reduce brake pipe pressure. Below 



222 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

the feed valve adjustment release and move the 
brake valve to running position. Keep the brake 
valve in full release position until the next stop, then 
reduce below the feed valve adjustment. 

154. How long should the brake valve handle be 
held in release position with a lone enguie? 

A. Just for the length of time it takes to go to 
release and back to runnning again. 

155. In making a terminal test of the brakes, on 
a train, how could you determine the amount of leak- 
age in the brake pipe? 

A. After the brake pipe exhaust closes note the 
amount the black hand drops. It is leakage. 

156. How could you test for a leak in the air sig- 
nal pipe on the engine? 

A. Cut out the reducing valve; should the whistle 
blow there would be a leak in the equipment. 

157. How can you test the air gauge by means 
of the brake valve? 

A. Place the brake valve in full release position 
and note the position of both red and black hands; 
they should be together. 

158. How could you test the signal line pressure? 
A. Close the pump throttle. Open the brake 

pipe angle cock slightly in front of the engine; place 
the brake valve in running position ; watch the red 
hand on the air gauge fall; when the whistle starts 
to blow it shows signal line pressure at the engine 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 223 

house; put the test gauge on the hose; open the sig- 
nal line cock. 

159. What would you do if you had a broken 
brake pipe under the tender of a passenger engine? 

A. Connect the signal line under tender to the 
brake pipe connection on the engine and to the brake 
pipe on the car. This will cut out your tender brake 
and air signal only. 

160. If the brake pipe on a passenger engine was 
broken, what would you do? 

A. Reduce main reservoir pressure to brake pipe 
pressure. Screw up on the air signal reducing valve; 
place the automatic brake valve on lap position; con- 
nect signal line on the engine to brake pipe of the 
tender; this will charge the brake pipe via. signal 
reducing valve. To apply the brake move the handle 
of brake valve to full release position, causing a re- 
duction in main reservoir pressure, and at the same 
time brake pipe pressure via. signal line on engine. 
(See similar pipe brake downs on E. T. Equip- 
ment.) 

161. What two pressures operate the triple valve 
in applying and releasing the brakes? 

A. Brake pipe and auxiliary pressures. 

162. How many times does the air pass through 
the triple valve? 

A. Three times. 



224 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

163. Which pressure moves the triple piston to 
apply the brake? Which to release? 

A. Auxiliary. Brake pipe pressure. 

164. If you reduce brake pipe pressure five 
pounds, how much pressure will leave the auxiliary 
reservoir, and go to the brake cylinder? If you re- 
duce ten pounds? Twenty? Why did not more leave 
the auxiliary reservoir after you reduced twenty 
pounds? 

A. About 5 or 6 pounds. About 10 or 11 pounds. 
Twenty will equalize the auxiliary and brake cylin- 
der. Because the auxiliary and brake cylinder 
equalized. 

165. Would a further reduction of brake pipe 
pressure apply the brake any harder? No. Why? 

A. Because the brake cylinder and auxiliary res- 
ervoir have equalized. 

166. What pressure should you have before test- 
ing brakes? 

A. Full brake pipe and main reservoir pressures. 

167. When applying brakes can you tell about 
how many cars of air are coupled up? Yes. How? 

A. By the length of the blow from the brake pipe 
exhaust. 

168. When applying brakes, if the brake pipe ex- 
haust at the brake valve is weak, what does it de- 
note? 

A. A restriction in the brake pipe, loose lining in 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 225 

an air hose, an angle cock partially closed. Loose 
rings in the equalizing piston of the brake valve 
would cause this also. 

169. When double heading, which engineer should 
control the brakes? What should the other engineer 
do? 

A. The engineer on the leading engine. He 
should cut out his brake valve. 

170. Could you tell from the head engine if he 
had? How? 

A. I would test the brake after coupling on 
should my reduction be pumped off. I would know 
he had not cut out his brake valve. 

171. What effect would it have if double heading 
they had not cut out their valve when you attempted 
to apply the brakes? 

A. I could not get a reduction in the brake pipe; 
the second engine would pump off my reduction and 
no application of the brake would result. 

172. In making a two-application stop, how 
should the brake valve be handled, so that the brakes 
will respond promptly to the first reduction of the 
second application? 

A. On lap position this will give a more even 
pressure in the auxiliary and brake pipe. Otherwise 
in running position brake pipe pressure would be 
higher than auxiliary and you would have to reduce 
this before you could get the triple piston to move 



226 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

173. Why is it dangerous to apply and release the 
brakes repeatedly when making a station stop? 

A. Might cause entire loss of air and no brake 
at all. 

174. Does a long train require any greater reduc- 
tion than short one? 

A. Generally it is a good plan to reduce 10 
pounds for the first 10 cars and 1 pound for each 10 
after that. Thus 30 cars, about 12 pounds; 50 cars, 
15 pounds, etc. 

I 75- When do you consider the most important 
time to look at your air gauge? 

A. Before descending grades, approaching meet- 
ing points and junction points, ends of double track, 
etc. 

176. What position of the brake valve should be 
used when recharging on a grade? 

A. Full release. 

177. Why should you open the angle cock on the 
rear end of tender, especially in cold weather before 
leaving the roundhouse? 

A. To see that it is not frozen. 

178. What defects in the Westinghouse brake 
valve would prevent excess pressure being carried? 

A. A leaky rotary valve leak between the feed 
valve and brake valve gasket, a leak in the lower 
brake valve gasket, a logy or stuck feed valve. 

179. How could a leak in the rotary valve, or 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 227 

lower gasket, be distinguished from a leak in the feed 
valve attachment, or the gasket between it and the 
brake valve? 

A. You would have no excess pressure should 
the rotary leak; it would charge the brake pipe on 
lap, using the regular test (see B. & M. examina- 
tion). Should it not charge brake pipe on lap it 
would be the feed valve or gasket. 

180. If the driver brake gradually leaks off after 
an application, without an exhaust through the triple 
valve, what would you report? 

A. Examine piping from triple valve to brake 
cylinder, also packing leather in the brake cylinder 
and head gasket. 

181. What would you do if the pipe to the West- 
inghouse single governor broke off? 

A. Plug the end of the broken pipe, throttle the 
pump to the desired pressure. 

182. If the signal whistle gives a weak blast what 
may be wrong? 

A. The reducing valve may be too lightly ad- 
justed. The rubber diaphram may be bagged or a 
small hole in it. 

183. If the signal line was fully charged what 
would cause it not to respond to a reduction in 
pressure? 

A. Bagged diaphram or broken whistle plugged 
by wedging waste between it and the cab, whistle 



228 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

loose on its stem or the whistle pipe broken and leak- 
ing. 

184. What would be the effect of applying the 
straight air and then the automatic, using the double 
check valve? Would there be any bad effect when 
the automatic brake was applied if the straight air 
was applied before the automatic was released? 

A. These may cause the brake to stick when the 
automatic valve is applied, the air would force the 
double check over, stopping the flow to the straight 
air brake valve and could not release it with the 
straight air valve, not if the reducing valve is O. K. 
To release put both valves in release position. 

185. What defect would cause a blow at the ex- 
haust port of a plain triple valve? 

A. A leaky emergency valve. 

186. What would cause a blow at the triple valve 
exhaust when the straight air was applied? What 
would cause a blow at the straight air brake valve 
when the automatic brake was applied? 

A. A leaky double check valve. 

187. Why will brakes apply, if you leave the 
handle of the brake valve too long in full release be- 
fore going to running position, if there are leaks in 
the brake pipe? 

A. The feed valve pressure is exceeded by 20 
pounds. No air can pass into the brake pipe. The 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 229 

leakages reduce the brake pipe pressure and apply 
the brakes. 

188. What is meant by a reduction? 

A. Making a reduction in chamber D causes a 
drawing air from the train pipe through the auto- 
matic brake valve. 

189. How much of a reduction should be made 
for the first, when making an ordinary stop? After 
the first reduction how heavy should the succeeding 
ones be? 

A. About 8 to 10 pounds, 3 to 5 pounds. With 
the modern triple valves. 

190. Do you consider a one or two application 
stop best with a passenger train? Why? 

A. Two. Because the second is lighter and does 
not tilt the trucks causing a recoil. 

191. How should stops with the high speed 
brake be made? 

A. Two applications. 

192. If stopped on a grade would you depend on 
the air brakes to hold the train any length of time? 
Why? 

A. No. Because the air would leak from the 
brake cylinder and auxiliary via. triple valve and the 
brake cylinder packing leathers. 

193. How heavy a reduction should be made for 
a first one, on a heavy grade, with a train of 20 to 
40 cars? With 40 to 60 cars? 



230 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. Ten pounds, 15 pounds. 

194. If black hand on gauge kept falling, due to 
the brake pipe leakage and the train did not slow up, 
what should you do? 

A. Call for hand brakes. 

195. What do you understand causes trains to 
get away on descending grades when being handled 
with air brakes? 

A. Too frequent applications and not allowing 
time to charge auxiliaries and not using retainers. 

196. Suppose the driving wheel tires were over- 
heating when using the automatic brake, what would 
you do? 

A. Release the straight air valve. 

197. In steadying a passenger train around a 
curve, where should the brakes be applied? Where 
should they be released? 

A. Just before coming on the curve. When leav- 
ing the curve. 

198. If you knew that you were sliding driving 
wheels when making a stop, what would you do? 
How would you prevent it at the next stop? 

A. Open the throttle quickly to try to start them 
revolving. Have sand running before applying the 
brake. 

199. If the rear brakes fail to release readily, 
what is the best way to release them? 

A. Make a heavy reduction and release. 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 



231 



200. How would you release the brakes on a 
freight train, when running, if engine was equipped 
with a straight air brake? 

A. Hold the driver brake on to prevent shocks. 

How could you operate the train brakes in the 
event of breaking the brake pipe from the automatic 
brake valve w r ith this equipment? 

A. Cut out the driver brake, disconnect the 
brake cylinder pipe and connect it to the train pipe 
between engine and tender. 

Reduce the main reservoir pressure to brake pipe 
pressure. Block the application piston to appli- 
cation position plug distributing valve exhaust. 
This will charge the train pipe via the distributing 
valve. Place the automatic valve on lap. 

To apply the brake move the handle of the au- 
tomatic valve to release, which will cause a reduc- 
tion in the brake pipe and in an application. 

How is retardation or brake power of a train 
computed to know about how r far a train will run 
after an application of the brake? 

A. This question involves New'ton's second law 
of motion, which states (a change of momentum is 
proportioned to the impressed force and takes place 
in the direction of the force), or in other words the 
brake powder must be a certain proportion of the 
total force of the train. 



232 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

Let us assume the train has a mass of 200 tons 
(mass is the weight of a body divided by gravity 
or 32.2 pounds) and running at 30 miles per hour 
is brought to a stop in 20 seconds, find the average 
braking power 30 miles per hour=44 feet per 
second, momentum in pounds in one second is 
200x2,000x44. 

Let X=brake power the total force now is 20X 
=200x2,000x44 or X=88o,ooo poundals (the action 
of one pound in one second) or 27,500 pounds. For 
brake power retardation will be 

Force 880000 11 



or 



Mass 200x2000 5 

feet per second each second. This represents the 
actual retardation of the brake mechanism for 
each second after the brake is applied. The space 
traveled will be ^2 the acceleration multiplied 
by the square of the time which is 20 seconds, 
hence 1/2x11/5x20x20=440 feet. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Computing Tonnage Rating and Other Resistances. 

1. How is the resistance of a train up a grade 
found or how is the tonnage rating figured for the 
ruling grade on a division 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 233 

A. The resistance of trains due to the grade can 
be found by dividing the rise of the grade by its 
length; for instance, a grade 5,000 feet long raises 50 
feet, then 50/5,000=1/100, multiplying this by 2,000 
we have 20 lbs. resistance per ton due to grade. In 
addition to this we have the resistance of the air 
which is the product of multiplying .007 by the square 
of the speed of the train, adding 9 to this. For ex- 
ample, 15 miles per hour = 225, which is the square 
of the speed, and multiplying by .007 we have 1.6, 
very nearly adding 9 w r e have 10.6 per ton resist- 
ance for the speeds, due to the air resistance. Add- 
ing this to the resistance per ton on act of grade w r e 
have 30.6 pounds per ton. In this case assume an 
engine to be of 40,000 pounds, tractive power and 
the 1 per cent, grade without curves, the weight of 
the engine, no tons or about 85 tons on drivers, the 
resistance per ton of 2,000 pounds is 22.2 times the 
weight carried on drivers. This is due to friction of 
the driving w r heels journals, cross heads, etc., w T hich 
must be subtracted from the tractive effort of the 
engine. In this case it is the product of 85x22.2, 
equal to 1887. Suppose the weight carried on the 
engine truck to be 12 tons, this figured at the same 
rate as a car, would be equal to 367 pounds; suppose 
also the weight of the tender to be 72.6 tons, tak- 
ing an average of two-thirds of this for the varying 
amount of water ,and fuel carried in the tender, 



234 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

we have 48.4 tons to this, the same resistance is 
applied as is to a car of the same weight we 
would have 1,887 pounds, and the total power util- 
ized to overcome the resistance will be as given here, 
namely: Weight on drivers 1,887, on engine 367, on 
tender 1,481, as a total 3,735, subtracting this from 
40,000 pounds, the tractive force, we have 36,200 very 
nearly available for hauling the train ; dividing this by 
30.6, the resistance per ton, which gives 1,117 
tons allowed on this particular grade. Now subtract- 
ing about 10 per cent, for varying conditions of steam 
pressure and conditions of the engines, we have 1,010 
tons about. 

2. How is the resistance figured on a curve? 

A. The resistance per ton on a curve is found by 
multiplying the degree of curvature by .08, for ex- 
ample, a 5-degree curve train of 1,000 tons would be 
4,000 pounds resistance, which would have to be de- 
ducted as in the case in the foregoing question. 

There are several formulas for train resistance, 
some of the principal and latest are as follows: By 
New York Central is given as 1.8+ 1/9 velocity in 
miles per hour per ton on level track. The resistance 
on grade is found by the dividing of the rise in feet 
by the length. There are several formulas for atmos- 
pheric resistance, the last named is quite practical. 

3. Why is the tractive force of an engine greatly 
increased with a slight increase in cylinder diameter? 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 235 

A. The product of the force in pounds in the cyl- 
inder is equal to the steam pressure multiplied by the 
number of square inches of the piston. Since this 
holds true, it is evident that a slight increase in the 
diameter of the cylinder will increase the number of 
square inches on the piston, which multiplied by the 
steam pressure will give the force exerted in pounds. 
A circle increased double its diameter results in 
four times the area of the cylinder or circle, thus a 
10 inch circle has an area of 78.54 square inches ; a 20 
inch has 314.16 or four times the area in square 
inches. The difference in the area in square inches 
of 19 inch and 22 inch cylinders is 283.5 f° r the 19 
inch and 452 for the 22 inch, or a difference of 168.9 
square inches in favor of the 22 inch cylinder. 

4. Suppose the both engines are starting a train 
and the steam admitted to the cylinders is 170, which 
is 85 per cent, of 200 pounds used in calculating trac- 
tive force, and each engine carrying 200 lbs. of steam 
in the example? 

A. The force of steam and square inches available 
will be 452x170 in the 22 inch cylinder engine and 
283.5x170 in the 19 inch cylinder engine, which is 
equal to 76,840 for the 22 inch and 48,195 for the 19 
inch or a difference of 28,645 pounds in favor of the 
22 inch engine. 

Now since all steam pressure is known by the 
square inch, the number of square inches found, and 



236 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

multiplying by the pressure will give the force in 
pounds. 

5. Explain how resistance by back pressure or ai> 
engine chocked up acts as a retarder of a train's 
movement ? 

A. The back pressure or resistance to the piston 
movement is the number of pounds back pressure, 
multiplied by the area of the piston; for example, in 
the 22 inch cylinder 452 square inches 5 pounds. Back 
pressure, which is equal to 2,160 pounds resistance 
from this cause. 

6. How is the elevation of the outer rail calculated 
on curves? 

A. The speed when rounding curves involve the 
principles laid down in Newton's laws of motion; 
however, a rule is used to give the amount of eleva- 
tion as follows : Multiply the degree of the curve by 
.00069 and this sum by the velocity in miles per hour 
squared or multiplied by itself, thus a 6 degree curve 
limit of speed, 40 miles per hour. 

.00069x6 = .00414, and this by 40 miles per hour 
multiplied by itself, we have .0014x1,600 = 6.624 or 
6 3/4 inches for the outer rail. 

8. How is a grade determined in per cent.? 

A. One per cent grade would have an incline of 1 
foot in a 100 of length or a rise of 52.8 feet per mile, 
a 3-4 per cent, grade would rise 9 inches in 100 
feet or 47 1-2 feet per mile. To find the rise per 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 237 

mile multiply 5,280 by the terms in per cent., thus 
5,28ox.oi = 52.8 per mile, or take the case of a 2 per 
cent, grade 5,28ox.02 would equal 105.6 feet per mile. 



CHAPTER IX. 

Questions on Locomotive Design. 

1. What is taken as a factor of adhesion on loco- 
motives ? 

A. Generally 1-4 of the weight on drivers is taken 
as the factor. 

2. Suppose an engine had solid counterbalances. 
How would you determine the weight of them? 

A. By the following method. You could come 
very close ; take a pair of calipers and divide the coun- 
terbalance at its outer edge, find the number of inches 
then find the entire circumference of the wheel center 
by multiplying the diameter of the wheel center by 
3.1416, this will give you the circumference of the 
wheel. Then by geometry the area of the sector of a 
circle is to the area of the circle as the arc of the sector 
is to the entire circumference. Assume the wheel center 
to be 46 inches in diameter and the arc of the counter- 
balance to be 56 inches, then by letting X equal the 
sector we have ¥ p^r = th which gives X = 676 very 
nearly. This being the area of the entire sector of 



238 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

the circle, now since the side nearest the center of the 
axle is straight it forms a chord of the circle, there- 
fore the wheel center being 46 inches lines from the 
edge of the counterbalance to the center of the axle 
will form a triangle, since the area of a triangle is 
the product of the base times twice altitude divided 
by 2, we have by this means the area of the triangle 
between the counterbalance and the center by the 
axle. 

Now assume the triangle to be 7 1-2 inches from 
the center of the axle and it's chord 56 inches in 
length. 7j x 56 equals 210 the area of the triangle 
subtracting this from the entire area of the sector we 
have 466 inches, the area of the counterbalance in 
square inches. 

To find the weight of the counterbalance it is nec- 
essary to know the number of cubic inches in the 
counterbalance, therefore 466 being the number of 
square inches, multiplying this by the thickness, as- 
sume it to be 8 inches, which is 8x466 = 3,728 cubic 
inches. Since there are 1,728 inches in 1 cubic foot, 
dividing 3,728 by 1,728, we have 2.13 cubic feet. The 
weight per cubic foot of cast iron or cast steel is 450 
lbs., therefore the weight of the counterbalance will 
be about 950 lbs. From this area the number of 
spokes that pass through the counterbalance could be 
figured and the same subtracted from the weight of 
the counterbalance. A convenient way of getting this 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 239 

would be to multiply the thickness of the spoke by its 
width and then by .7854 and this sum by its length 
passing through the counterbalance. Multiply this by 
the weight of the metal per cubic inch, subtracting the 
same from the counterbalance. There is also another 
method of finding the square inches in the counter- 



balance. The following can be used^xj/ -^- — -608 
where H equals the height of the counterbalance at its 
middle point and R the radius of the circle. How can 
improper counterbalances be determined from observa- 
tion? The American Master Mechanics' Association 
have a rule which states that 399/400 of the recipro- 
tating parts. Some builders use a maximum of 65 per 
cent, and a minimum of 55 per cent. Reciprocating 
parts consist of piston, piston rod, main and side rods. 
The entire w r eight of the main rod is not taken as a 
reciprocating part. 

A good method of observing improper counterbal- 
ancing: Should the engine have a nosing action 
it is evident that the rods are heavier and are out of 
balance; on the other hand should we have vertical 
action or an upward pull so to speak when the engine 
is passing the top quarter ; this may also cause the en- 
gine to slip shut-off owing to the tremendous inirtia 
set up by the driving wheels at high speed in addition 
to its liability to derail the engine. The factor of ad- 
hesion of the engine will be less under such circum- 



24 o PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

stances at some points of the stroke, as there is a ten- 
dency to lift the engine while the counterbalance is 
passing upward. It also exerts a great strain on the 
rails while passing downward. If the factor of ad- 
hesion is less while the counterbalance is coming up 
the liability for the engine to start slipping at this 
point is quite evident and the great centrifugal force 
when once started will not recede until the forces are 
nearly normal, that is, slowed down materially. 

3. What are some other causes of an engine slip- 
ping shut-off? 

A. Excessive cylinder compression is said to be a 
sufficient cause for this. 

4. Explain clearly why an engine wears more on 
the left side in service? 

A. The left driving box will wear greater on ac- 
count of the unbalanced portion of the engine while 
running ahead, coming on that side. To explain, 
starting forward on the back center right side the 
engine takes steam and pulls the driving box ahead 
against the shoe, now follow this up to the top quarter 
until the left side begins to pull the left side ahead 
in the same manner, now both driving boxes are 
against the forward wedges or shoes when the right 
side gets to the forward center the driving box is re- 
leased and the steam in the left cylinder forces it 
back to the back wedge or shoe through the fulcrum 
of the left driving box, now the right cylinder takes 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 



241 



steam again and pushes the driving box, which is now 
against the back wedge or shoe, and is held there until 
the left side gets to its forward center. This brings 
the right side on the lower quarter and as release takes 
place in the left cylinder, the driving box is brought 
back against the front shoe or wedge by the right side 
through the fulcrum of the right driving box. Or, in 
other words, the driving box on the right side is al- 
ways against the shoe or wedge while the left side 
has to take its slack up before the power can be ap- 
plied. 

During this motion ahead the right driving box re- 
ceives but one pound or tendencies to pound in one 
revolution, while the left side receives two for each 
revolution. Should the engine be run backwards the 
same conditions would appear on the right driving 
box. 

5. What advantage is gained in using an inside 
admission piston valve? 

A. An inside admission piston valve is much easier 
on valve stem packing and but one size of valve cham- 
ber bushings are necessary while on the outside two 
sizes are required generally. 

6. Which end of the valve chamber is the larger 
bushing on? 

A. On the rear end. 

7. Why are two sizes of valve chamber bushings 
used? 



242 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

A. A large bushing is used for the purpose of 
compensating the space used by the valve stem in 
this chamber. 

8. What is the inside admission valve sometimes 
called? 

A. An indirect valve. 

9. Why is it called an indirect valve? 

A. Because it moves opposite to an ordinary slide 
valve and opposite to an outside admission piston 
valve. 

10. Suppose the engine had an outside admission 
valve and it was changed to indirect motion and no 
changes in the valve gear, what would result? 

A. The engine would back up in the forward gear 
and run ahead in the back gear. 

11. How is this overcome? 

A. On some roads all eccentrics are set 90 degrees 
minus lap and lead behind the main pin. 

12. How would you figure the tractive power of 
an engine? 

A. By multiplying the diameter of the cylinder 
by itself in inches and this by its stroke and then 85 
per cent, of the boiler pressure and the same dividend 
by the diameter of the wheel in inches. Subtract 10 
per cent, for friction. 

13. Explain how you would find the stroke? 

A. Measure the distance from the center of the 
main axle to the main pin and multiply by 2. If this 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 243 

distance from the main pin to axle is 15 inches x 2 
which is equal to a 30-inch stroke. 

14. Explain how you would find height of wheel? 
A. To find height of wheel measure the distance 

from the outside of the tire to the center of the axle 
and multiply by 2. The measurements can be done 
much quicker than using the entire distances. 

15. How would you get the 85 per cent, of the 
boiler pressure? 

A. With 200 pounds, subtract 30 from boiler 
pressure; if 190, subtract 28.5; if 180, subtract 27; 
if 160, subtract 24; if 150, subtract 22.5. 

16. How, after finding the tractive power, would 
you tell the tonnage the engine would haul over a 
division giving the rating in its time card and tractive 
power of its engines? 

A. Divide the tractive power into the tractive 
power of the jqo class or 100 per cent, engines shown 
in the time card; should it be 90 per cent., for in- 
stance, multiply the 100 class engine by .90 and it 
is the desired tonnage rating. 

17. How is the tractive power of an engine com- 
pared with other proportions of the engine? 

A. Tractive power of the engine is 2^ to 26 per 
cent, of the weight on drivers; for instance, take an 
engine carrying 85 tons on drivers, or 170,000 pounds, 
we have i7o,oooX.26%=46,200, the tractive power 



244 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

of the engine, on modern locomotives; this will come 
quite close to the rating. 

33. What rule is used for the size of steam ports 
on locomotives? 

A. It is taken 1-10 to 1-12 of the area of the cyl- 
inder. For instance, take the area of a 20-inch cyl- 
inder which is the process of 20x20 multiplied by 
.7854 and divide this by 12, the result is 26 inches 
nearly, since on consolidation i^-inch steam ports 
are used dividing 1 and y 2 into 26. We have a 
steam port 18 2-3 long, or 18V2 to simplify this rule 
20 x 20 x .7854 and divide by 12. 

38. Is the range of cut-off changed by moving 
the eccentric? 

A. Yes, if the eccentric is moved on the shaft in 
the same direction in which the engine is to run its 
range of cut off will be less since this movement of 
the cam produces earlier lead it produces likewise 
all events earlier. 

39. What do you infer by the angular of ad- 
vance? 

A. The angular of advance is the extreme point 
of the eccentric with relation to the main pin, or 90 
degrees plus lap and lead. 

40. What do you infer by the eccentricity of 
the eccentric cam? 

A. The eccentricity of the cam is the path the 
cam will travel in at its extreme throw, for instance, 



ON LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 245 

from the center of the axle to the outer extremity 
of the cam say measures 3 inches the path of this 
point is 3 each way back and forth, producing a 
6-inch travel which is termed the eccentricity. 

41. Name the points of the stroke of an engine 
and their order. 

A. Admission cut off expansion, release and 
compression. 

42. Why are side and main rods made I shaped 
instead of solid sections? 

A. By rules of physics it shows that the metal 
removed from the rods would be of no value under 
the stresses imposed upon them, and by the partic- 
ular design resistance to breakage is set up under a 
much-reduced weight compared with the solid rod 
and giving the same strength. 

43. What other advantage is gained by making 
the rod in this manner? 

A. The centrifugal force of which is a bad fea- 
ture is materially reduced and consequent reduc- 
tions in counterbalances. 

44. What is piston clearance? 

A. Piston clearance is the space measured be- 
tween the piston and cylinder heads taken when the 
engine is on its dead centers. 

45. What is total clearance and how measured? 
A. Total clearance is the space between the 

cylinder head piston and the port up to the valve 



246 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 

seat measured when the engine is on its center. A 
convenient method used is to pipe up the indicator 
hole at one end of the cylinder, set the cross head 
on the dead center, disconnect the valve covering 
the port on the end of the cylinder that you are to 
measure with the valve, have these pipes penpjen- 
dicular and higher than the valve seat. Then take 
a pail of water, weight and fill the space and note 
the weight of water it takes to fill this space since 
i cubic foot of water or 1728 cubic inches of water 
weight 62.4 pounds the total clearance can be accu- 
rately measured by the method. The cylinder vol- 
ume is the product of the area of the circle multi- 
plied by the length of travel of the piston the clear- 
ance may be shown in per cent, by dividing the 
number of cubic inches of cylinder volume into the 
number of cubic inches of clearance volume. 



Finis. 



OCT 6 1918 



